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... consensus algorithms are also proposed. Figure 3 depicts the generic architecture and categorization of consensus mechanisms in distributed systems. Apart from the general categorization of consensus algorithms in distributed environment, the categorization can be done with regard to blockchain. ...
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Blockchain being a leading technology in the 21st century is revolutionizing each sector of life. Services are being provided and upgraded using its salient features and fruitful characteristics. Businesses are being enhanced by using this technology. Countries are shifting towards digital currencies i.e., an initial application of blockchain appli...
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... Trustworthiness ( 5 ( ) ) In BPs, trustworthiness denotes the trust in a system by users exploiting the network, participants, and external stakeholders collaborating with the network, but not directly involved in it [47]. Trustworthiness is contingent upon numerous factors constituting the network. ...
Digital projects aspiring to reach target audiences are executed through decentralized and trustworthy blockchain platforms (BPs). Once the objectives and target audience of a digital project are defined, the selection of suitable BPs is undertaken. The primary objective of this research is to develop a decision support system that aids in the selection of BPs for transferring digital data and assets. Numerous quantitative parameters determine the performance of BPs, alongside qualitative parameters indicating their performance. In this study, the aim is to determine the performance of BPs based on both qualitative and quantitative parameters. Within this scope, a multi-criteria decision-making approach and interval-valued spherical fuzzy (IVSF) sets are adopted. IVSF sets are utilized to determine expert importance levels. The IVSF-criteria importance assessment (CIMAS) method is introduced for the weighting of criteria. IVSF-CIMAS enables the determination of reliability levels in calculating criterion weights. The IVSF-simple weighted sum product (WISP) method is formulated to obtain the performance ranking of BPs. Thus, in this research, the IVSF-CIMAS-WISP hybrid model is developed, and an algorithm for this novel decision-analytic model is presented. A case study is developed focusing on BP selection for a digital project to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed hybrid model. The robustness of IVSF-CIMAS-WISP is tested through extensive sensitivity analysis scenarios. According to the research results, the applicability of the IVSF-CIMAS-WISP hybrid method is supported and its robustness is confirmed. The research findings provide numerous insights for project managers and practitioners.
... Nevertheless, in a distributed network such as blockchain, partial trust between peers exists, and consensus protocols are established to agree on a single copy of the ledger, whereas, in the case of the participation of multiple nodes, there must be agreement on a standard value [118,141]. Distribution, immutability, and decentralization are the fundamental principles of blockchain, enhancing fault tolerance due to the participants' contribution to the system [142]. Also, fundamental features (characteristics) of blockchain, such as transparency, tamper-proofing, and security, make it a high-potential and innovative technology, capable of being combined with other emerging technologies [143]. ...
The Internet of Drones (IoD) is a decentralized network linking drones’ access to controlled airspace, providing high adaptability to complex scenarios and services to various drone applications, such as package delivery, traffic surveillance, and rescue, including navigation services. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), combined with IoD principles, offer numerous strengths, e.g., high mobility, wireless coverage areas, and the ability to reach inaccessible locations, including significant improvements such as reliability, connectivity, throughput, and decreased delay. Additionally, emerging blockchain solutions integrated within the concept of the IoD enable effective outcomes that surpass traditional security approaches, while enabling decentralized features for smart human-centered applications. Nevertheless, the combination of the IoD and blockchain faces many challenges with emerging open issues that require further investigation. In this work, we thoroughly survey the technological concept of the IoD and fundamental aspects of blockchain, while investigating its contribution to current IoD practices, the impact of novel enabling technologies, and their active role in the combination of the corresponding synergy. Moreover, we promote the combination of the two technologies by researching their collaborative functionality through different use cases and application fields that implement decentralized IoD solutions and highlighting their indicative benefits, while discussing important challenges and future directions on open issues.
... It is noteworthy that IDS operates as an architecture, not a platform, enabling seamless integration with other systems to universally implement the concept of data spaces across various domains 9 . To establish formal trust within this architecture, The IDSA has developed a certification concept for IDS components and participants' operational environments. ...
... Toward addressing challenge 4. To address the challenge of technical efficiency and scalability, a promising research direction involves optimizing distributed computing. This involves a multifaceted approach, including the investigation of customized consensus algorithms tailored to the unique requirements of data marketplaces such algorithms can enhance data transaction speeds, reduce latency, and ensure data integrity, particularly in large-scale data trading scenarios [9,24]. Additionally, exploring edge and fog computing solutions for localized data processing can alleviate the strain on centralized servers [43], improving overall system efficiency. ...
Traditional data monetization approaches face challenges related todata protection and logistics. In response, digital data marketplaceshave emerged as intermediaries simplifying data transactions. De-spite the growing establishment and acceptance of digital datamarketplaces, significant challenges hinder efficient data trading.As a result, few companies can derive tangible value from their data,leading to missed opportunities in understanding customers, pric-ing decisions, and fraud prevention. In this paper, we explore bothtechnical and organizational challenges affecting data monetization.Moreover, we identify areas in need of further research, aimingto expand the boundaries of current knowledge by emphasizingwhere research is currently limited or lacking.
... It becomes extremely difficult to make any changes unethically since these kinds of changes will automatically get rejected by the Blockchain before being included. Every time a new change is made to the data, it cannot be included in the Blockchain unless it is validated by the peer nodes [30,31]. There may be times when the number of metadata items in the NFT is large due to product images or videos in the details section. ...
Online shopping offers consumers a way to go shopping and purchase services and goods at reasonable prices through the Internet; however, product selection in terms of quality, price, and incredible trust is an issue. Various sources of feedback may exist for the same product, which can critically affect perceptions about it. It may eventually lead to a person buying or simply ignoring the product. It is necessary to ensure that these comments are not both fraudulent and legitimate. In this context, blockchain has now come to light as a promising technology that offers customers a reliable and unchangeable feedback mechanism. This work proposes a blockchain-based feedback system using non-fungible tokens (BFSN) as a framework to evaluate items through feedback. In addition, this paper also uses the interplanetary file system to store the metadata of e-commerce products to avoid storing large amounts of data on the blockchain. The empirical results prove that the proposed framework completes the order of milliseconds. The buyer and seller’s individual transaction details stay private and immutable with this proposed method, and zero-knowledge authentication is used for any transactions.
... In the comparative study of recently proposed algorithms [55,56] For example, PoW, commonly associated with public blockchains, showcases medium to high transaction rates but exhibits moderate scalability. Despite resilience to Sybil attacks, PoW is susceptible to 51% attacks, requiring substantial computational power and resulting in moderate latency and throughput with elevated bandwidth requirements. ...
The eHealth sector has witnessed significant growth due to technological advancements, facilitating care delivery in patients' homes and moving away from traditional hospital settings. Blockchain and the Internet of Things (IoT) play pivotal roles in enhancing healthcare services, offering features such as remote patient monitoring, streamlined electronic medical record (EMR) management, drug traceability, and effective disease control, particularly during events like the COVID-19 pandemic. The growing utilization of IoT devices brings about security challenges, including concerns related to data integrity and device authentication. This paper proposes the integration of blockchain technology as a robust solution. Leveraging its decentralized and tamper-resistant features, blockchain establishes trust among diverse IoT devices, ensuring the integrity of IoT data. Additionally, smart contracts enhance device authentication, fortifying overall security by addressing vulnerabilities associated with centralization. Regarding the management of eHealth, this survey begins with an overview of the industry, highlighting IoT-related challenges in healthcare. It explores various IoT applications in eHealth and discusses how blockchain can effectively address obstacles in healthcare management through IoT. Notably, the paper provides insights into examining consensus algorithm parameters within blockchain systems, clarifying the methodology used to assess and optimize these critical components. The survey extends to a thorough review of existing research on integrating blockchain-based IoT in eHealth. Finally, it presents an overview of challenges and potential solutions for implementing blockchain-based IoT in the eHealth sector. This comprehensive survey aims to empower stakeholders by providing insights to enhance patient care in this dynamic and evolving field.
... Smart contracts [42] are another vital part of blockchain, which is important for our system. Anonymity and privacy are the inherited challenges in the blockchain system [43]. Anonymity means that the original sender remains innominate. ...
With the increase in IoT (Internet of Things) devices comes an inherent challenge of security. In the world today, privacy is the prime concern of every individual. Preserving one’s privacy and keeping anonymity throughout the system is a desired functionality that does not come without inevitable trade-offs like scalability and increased complexity and is always exceedingly difficult to manage. The challenge is keeping confidentiality and continuing to make the person innominate throughout the system. To address this, we present our proposed architecture where we manage IoT devices using blockchain technology. Our proposed architecture works on and off blockchain integrated with the closed-circuit television (CCTV) security camera fixed at the rental property. In this framework, the CCTV security camera feed is redirected towards the owner and renter based on the smart contract conditions. One entity (owner or renter) can see the CCTV security camera feed at one time. There is no third-party dependence except for the CCTV security camera deployment phase. Our contributions include the proposition of framework architecture, a novel smart contract algorithm, and the modification to the ring signatures leveraging an existing cryptographic technique. Analyses are made based on different systems’ security and key management areas. In an empirical study, our proposed algorithm performed better in key generation, proof generation, and verification times. By comparing similar existing schemes, we have shown the proposed architectures’ advantages. Until now, we have developed this system for a specific area in the real world. However, this system is scalable and applicable to other areas like healthcare monitoring systems, which is part of our future work.
... Blockchain networks' consensus algorithms control how transactions are verified and added to the blockchain. Proof-of-Work (PoW) is a common consensus mechanism, but it can be resource-intensive and have high latency [180] [184]. Long confirmation times and significant energy use may not be practical in an IoT context where real-time responsiveness is essential. ...
Internet of Things (IoT) plays an essential contribution in connecting devices and enabling seamless data exchange, leading to increased efficiency and convenience. However, security concerns in IoT systems are significant, as compromised devices can lead to data breaches and privacy violations. Blockchain technology can enhance IoT security by providing decentralized consensus, immutability, and transparent transaction records, ensuring secure and trustworthy communication and data integrity. This review article gives a succinct but thorough understanding of blockchain technology, covering architecture of blockchain, working principles, types, applications, platforms, and its role in the IoT environment. The study highlights potential benefits of blockchain like enhanced security and privacy, and explores its integration with IoT. Additionally, the study discusses various real-world applications, examines blockchain platforms, and addresses the limitations and challenges associated with blockchain technology. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners seeking a deeper understanding of blockchain’s potential and its implications in the IoT landscape.
... In a blockchain, mathematical algorithms known as consensus algorithms are employed to verify transactions and establish trust among the participating parties [67]. Different consensus mechanisms are utilized by different blockchains, and for the purpose of this investigation, the proposed model utilizes the Proof-of-Authority (PoA) consensus mechanism [68]. ...
The field programmable gate array (FPGA) supply chain is vulnerable to security issues from untrusted participants involved, resulting in the significant research being conducted in this domain. These challenges include, but are not limited to intellectual property theft, counterfeiting, bitstream tampering, etc. Such FPGAs are not reliable and can lead to significant security threats to users. To combat the distrust in the FPGA supply chain and secure its integrity, we propose a zero trust framework to secure the FPGA supply chain by leveraging blockchain and ring oscillator physical unclonable functions (ROPUFs). The policies for architecture draw inspiration from zero trust tenets outlined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. To evaluate the successful implementation of the proposed technique, a case study of FPGA supply chain is presented. For this case study, a typical FPGA supply chain is considered which includes all the participants. This scenario is successfully simulated on the Ganache framework provided by Truffle suite. The experiment is performed on Artix 7 Xilinx FPGAs mounted on Nexys 4 Digilent boards. Finally, each tenet of the implemented zero trust architecture is evaluated by discussing an attack scenario, thus demonstrating the efficiency of the proposed zero trust framework to mitigate potential security risks. To the best of our knowledge, the work presented in this paper is the first to include zero trust principles for protecting the FPGA supply chain using blockchain and hardware oriented security.
... Each member participating in the hash target search competition uses computing power individually. Thus, each member does mining, and only one member is considered the winner, which makes PoW consume much energy [30,31]. The workflow example of performance-based blockchain consensus is shown in Fig. 2. Another performance-based consensus proposed is PoSe (Proof-of-Search). ...
This research presents a reputation-based blockchain consensus mechanism called Proof of Intelligent Reputation (PoIR) as an alternative to traditional Proof of Work (PoW). PoIR addresses the limitations of existing reputation-based consensus mechanisms by proposing a more decentralized and fair node selection process. The proposed PoIR consensus combines Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) with the Network Entity Reputation Database (NERD) to generate reputation scores for network entities and select authoritative nodes. NERD records network entity profiles based on various sources, i.e., Warden, Blacklists, DShield, AlienVault Open Threat Exchange (OTX), and MISP (Malware Information Sharing Platform). It summarizes these profile records into a reputation score value. The PoIR consensus mechanism utilizes these reputation scores to select authoritative nodes. The evaluation demonstrates that PoIR exhibits higher centralization resistance than PoS and PoW. Authoritative nodes were selected fairly during the 1000-block proposal round, ensuring a more decentralized blockchain ecosystem. In contrast, malicious nodes successfully monopolized 58% and 32% of transaction processes in PoS and PoW, respectively, but failed to do so in PoIR. The findings also indicate that PoIR offers efficient transaction times of 12 s, outperforms reputation-based consensus such as PoW, and is comparable to reputation-based consensus such as PoS. Furthermore, the model evaluation shows that BiLSTM outperforms other Recurrent Neural Network models, i.e., BiGRU (Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit), UniLSTM (Unidirectional Long Short-Term Memory), and UniGRU (Unidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit) with 0.022 Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE). This study concludes that the PoIR consensus mechanism is more resistant to centralization than PoS and PoW. Integrating BiLSTM and NERD enhances the fairness and efficiency of blockchain applications.
... Consensus algorithms that require that all the participants are known are not applicable. These so-called private or consortium blockchain systems [13] use Byzantine Fault Tolerant type consensus [14]. ...
Bitcoin is one of the most prominent blockchain systems but is infamous for its massive energy consumption. The proof-of-work (PoW) consensus algorithm used for appending transactions to the Bitcoin ledger (also known as Bitcoin mining) incurs substantial energy expenditure due to the energy-intensive nature of PoW. The root of this inefficiency lies in the current implementation of the PoW algorithm. PoW establishes a linear relationship between a miner's computational power and their probability of successfully mining a block by assigning an identical cryptographic puzzle to all miners.
This paper investigates the energy inefficiency inherent in PoW mining by exploring the potential benefits of introducing a nonlinear probability of success based on a miner's computational power. This nonlinear proof-of-work (nlPoW) algorithm reduces energy consumption without compromising the decentralised nature of Bitcoin. This study formulates four distinct nlPoW algorithms through a meticulous design science approach by deducing requisite algorithmic specifications and structures.
Rigorous statistical simulations are employed to assess the performance of nlPoW against conventional PoW within the Bitcoin mining process. Preliminary outcomes obtained from simulating a sizable network of miners, each possessing equivalent computational power, demonstrate that nlPoW effectively curtails the hash computations required during Bitcoin mining. nlPoW achieves energy efficiency enhancements without compromising the decentralised consensus model or substituting energy consumption with alternate resources, a trade-off often observed in prior attempts to mitigate the energy challenge associated with PoW.
