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Schima wallichii is a highly valuable tree of tropical forest in north-east Himalaya region that grows naturally in a wide range of altitudes between 750 and 2400 m asl with varying environments. Flowering phenology of tropical tree species at population level is generally ignored and therefore a detailed knowledge of flowering and fruiting pattern...
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Citations
... Korth. primary pollinators are honey bees (Apis L.), carpenter bees (Xylocopa), and butterflies (Sinthusa nasaka (Horsfield), Cabera pusaria (L.), and Dysphania militaris (L.)) (Khanduri 2001;Khanduri et al. 2013). Based on the currently available literature on flower visitations and pollinators of Theaceae it is clear that the family is animal pollinated and insects are the most common pollinators. ...
... Extant species of Xylocopa are important generalist pollinators in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions and visit species of Theaceae, especially the flowers of Schima. Xylocopa (Nyctomelitta) tranquebarica (Fabricius) is known to visit Theaceae, and X. (Biluna) nasalis Westwood collects pollen of Schima that is fed to the larvae (Khanduri 2001;Burgett et al. 2005;Khanduri et al. 2013;Hongjamrassilp and Warrit 2014). ...
The association of pollinators with their host plants is a critical element of ecosystem functioning and one that is usually determined indirectly in the fossil record from specific morphological traits of flowers or putative pollinating animals. The exceptionally fine preservation at Messel, Germany, offers an excellent source of data on pollen from fossil flowers as well as preserved adhering to insects as direct evidence of their association with specific floral lineages. Here, we report on pollen recovered from the body and legs of a large carpenter bee (Apidae: Xylocopinae: Xylocopini) from the Eocene of Messel. The fossil is the earliest occurrence of the tribe Xylocopini and represents an extinct subgenus and species, described as Xylocopa (Apocolyx) primigenia subgen. et sp. nov. Two eudicot pollen types were recovered from the bee, one of the family Theaceae (Asterids: Ericales) and another of Araliaceae (Euasterids: Apiales). The pollen grains are compared with various extinct and extant pollen types, and data on floral visitors to modern theaceous and araliaceous flowers are explored in relation to understanding the association of the fossil carpenter with these floral types in the paratropical Eocene biota of Messel.
... This study aims to 1) estimate the reproductive effort and success of five tropical tree species, 2) examine whether the reproductive success is influenced by pollen limitation, and 3) assess inbreeding depression for each analysed species for which the data was used on the basis of experimental work done by the author (Khanduri, 2016), and the average value calculated for fruit set, seedset and seed germination was taken. The study species were (i) Bombax ceiba (an economically important on account of the presence of floss surrounding the seeds, which is used for making pillows, cushions, etc.; (Khanduri & Kumar, 2017a), (ii) Erythrina stricta (medicinally useful;Kirthikar & Basu, 1987;Khanduri et al., 2021), (iii) Lagerstroemia speciosa (medicinally important; Khanduri, 2014), (iv) Mesua ferrea (high medicinal potential; Khanduri & Kumar, 2017b) and (v) Schima wallichii (commercial timber tree; Khanduri et al., 2013). The results of the study will be of immense value for understanding the behaviour of pollen grains in nature and, subsequently for various tree improvement and breeding programmes to forest geneticists, silviculturists and evolutionary biologists because of their adaptive and practical significance. ...
The aim of this study was to estimate reproductive effort and success in tropical trees and to examine the effect of pollen limitation on reproductive success. Pollen limitation was assessed through pollen supplementation experiment to contrast the open pollination treatment. The taxa selected were Bombax ceiba, Erythrina stricta (ornithophilous trees), Lagerstroemia speciosa, Mesua ferrea and Schima wallichii (entomophilous trees). Index of pollen limitation was highest in Bombax ceiba and Erythrina stricta (both self-incompatible species). The remaining three species were partially self-incompatible with favouring selfing in Lagerstroemia speciosa and Mesua ferrea and supporting outcrossing in Schima wallichii . Therefore, the high index of pollen limitation in Bombax ceiba and Erythrina stricta might be due to the effect of either lacking quality pollen or lacking bird pollinators. All five species produce a large amount of pollen at individual tree level in the order of 108 ( Erythrina stricta ) to 1010 ( Mesua ferrea ). Fruit and seed set following pollen supplementation were higher than the open pollination (as control) in all studied species. Pollen limitation in this study is likely associated with the effectiveness of pollinator and their frequency, as all the studied species had produced ample pollen at tree crown level which ultimately leads to pollinator resource limitation in tropical trees.
... S. wallichii (family: Theaceae) is a fairly light demander evergreen tree species mainly found in tropical and warm temperate conditions of Asian regions of the world. It is locally utilized as timber, poles, fuelwood and charcoal making and seldom as fodder (Khanduri et al. 2013). The tree has dense canopy and can grow more than 30m in height under natural conditions. ...
Tropical tree represents high diversity but the phenological studies are scare as compared to that of temperate forest trees. The present study was conducted to understand vegetative and reproductive phenology of five important forest trees in relation to prevailing climatic factors in ecologically sensitive tropical moist forest mountainous region of Indo-Burma. Phenological observations, viz. (i) leaf flushing, (ii) leaf fall, (iii) flower onset (date of first flowering), (iv) flower duration (date of first and last flower), (v) mean flowering date (peak of flowering), (vi) mean flowering amplitude (number of flowers produced per unit time), (vii) synchrony (flowering overlap among individuals), (viii) fruit set (development and retention), and ix) fruit drop, were recorded for two consecutive years from January 2012 to May 2014. The relation of observed variables with the climatic factors was analyzed. Four patterns of flowering has been observed in studied species, viz. (i) flowering during complete leafless period in Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. (ii) flowering initially during leafless stage and later coinciding with leaf flush due to onset of rain in Gmelina arborea Roxb. (iii) flowering much later after leaf flushing in Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. (iv) flowering during mature leaf phase as in evergreen species Schima wallichii Choisy and Callicarpa arborea Roxb. Duration of flowering was significantly positively correlated (p < 0.05) with rainfall, temperature and photoperiod in C. arborea, while other species exhibited weak correlation with climatic variables.
... This study is a rare example of reproduction hampering a biological invasion. Incompatibility in angiosperms is one of the most successful anti-selfing mechanisms present in plant reproductive biology (Khanduri et al., 2013). This anti-selfing mechanism is meant to strengthen the species genetic diversity and fecundity; however, in an invasive setting, it seems to disadvantage P. cordata's spread. ...
Reproduction is a crucial part of the successful establishment and spread of an in-vasive species. Invasive plants often produce seeds prolifically to spread into new ranges, yet the invasive macrophyte, Pontederia cordata L., does not appear to produce seeds in South Africa, limiting its invasive potential. Here, we aimed to determine what limits seed production of the tristylous P. cordata in South Africa, where it is widespread with impacts on the ecology of wetlands it invades, South Africa. We measured floral traits and pollen grain size from populations throughout the invasive range in South Africa to determine the relative proportion of tristylous morphs. We speculated that the absence of specialist native pollinators in the invasive range may be responsible for the absence of sexual reproduction and thus conducted a pollination study to determine whether flowers were visited. Thereafter, we hand pollinated 8865 flowers to conclude whether P. cordata exhibited an incompatibility system, which prevented seed production. The floral traits and pollen grain measurements were similar to those reported for short-morphed flowers from the native range. The pollination study confirmed the absence of specialist insect visitors, while the hand-pollination experiments resulted in no seed production. Only short-morphed plants are present in South Africa, and the illegitimate pollination of short-morphed plants prevents seed production. Vegetative spread through rhizome production is thus responsible for the invasion of P. cordata throughout South Africa. These findings suggest that control programs should target the plants' rhizomes to prevent and reduce spread. More importantly, preventing the introduction of medium-and long-morphed plants into South Africa is crucial to preclude P. cordata from producing seeds and enhancing invasion. K E Y W O R D S incompatibility, invasion, management, pollination ecology, Pontederia cordata, tristyly
... Species with long flowering periods may avoid pollination limitations by increasing pollinator visitation (Aronne et al., 2015). Pollination mediates male-female interactions and is dependent on abiotic and biotic factors (Khanduri et al., 2013). The recognition of pollinators is also an essential requirement for studying the pollination system (Johnson & Steiner, 2000;Sahli & Conner, 2006;Waser et al., 1996). ...
Besides its importance as an ornamental plant, Justicia betonica L. is also used as a medicinal plant for the treatment of several human disorders. However, the population size and abundance of the plant species are very low in Indian states, including West Bengal. The breeding system and pollination ecology of J. betonica are still unclear. Therefore, some reproductive aspects were investigated in order to provide important information for the sustainability of the species. The flowering duration spanned from December to May, with its peak in February–March. Flower opening time was much earlier (5.00–8.00 a.m.) on a hot day (in April–May) than on a cold day (10.00 a.m.–12.00 p.m. in December–January). The time of anther dehiscence coincided with the flower opening time; however, the stigma became receptive later. The plant species is self‐compatible but dependent on pollinators for fruit and seed sets. Members of different insect groups like ants, bees, butterflies, flies, moths and wasps visit the flowers. Among them, Allorhynchium metallicum and Halictus acrocephalus are the primary pollinators (based on the “relative pollinator service”). The plant species showed a significant pollination deficit (coefficient of pollination deficit [D] = 0.32) in the open condition. Larvae of the florivorous moth Gatesclarkeana erotias significantly reduced reproductive success by eating their floral parts, ovules and immature seeds. In conclusion, combining the pollination deficit and the feeding activity of phytophagous insects (moth larvae) may reduce the reproductive fitness of J. betonica in the study regions. Justicia betonica is self‐compatible but dependent on the pollinators for fruit and seed sets. Allorhynchium metallicum, Delta pyriforme and Halictus acrocephalus are potent pollinators. The moth larvae reduce the reproductive success of the plant species by eating their floral parts, ovule and immature seeds.
... For example, in wind-pollinated species advancing canopy closure relative to flowering can impede long-distance pollen transport (Milleron et al., 2012), which may in turn alter patterns of gene flow across a landscape. In biotically pollinated species, FLS shifts may interact with other drivers of global change such as phenological mismatches with pollinators (Burkle et al., 2013) or flowering asynchrony among populations (Cresti et al., 2013;Zohner et al., 2018) ...
The relative timing of growth and reproduction is an important driver of plant fitness. For deciduous woody species in temperate regions, leaves and flowers both appear in the early spring, but the order and duration of these phenological events vary among species, populations and individuals. Researchers have long hypothesized that this variation in flower–leaf sequences (FLSs) may be important—affecting the reproduction, recruitment and survival of individuals. Furthermore, FLSs appear to be shifting with climate change; thus, anticipating the extent of these shifts may influence projections of how climate change impacts species' performance and reshapes forest communities.
Predicting FLS shifts requires an improved understanding of how environmental variation dictates FLS patterns. To address this, we compared the phenological responses of flowers and developing leaves for 10 temperate woody species to varying levels of temperature and photoperiod in a lab experiment. Our experimental design allowed us to test competing hypotheses for how environmental cues determine FLS variation—specifically whether forcing (warm temperatures) alone drives variation or differential sensitivity to chilling (cool temperatures generally in the fall/winter) and/or photoperiod matter.
Within species, we found that flower and leaf phenology responded with differential sensitivity to environmental cues, with differences in their response to chilling being the dominant driver of FLS variation. These differences between flowering and leaf responses were consistent across species, but because species differ in the order of phenological events in their FLSs (flowering‐first versus leafing‐first), differences between flower and leaf phenology will have contrasting impacts on FLS variation across species. Simple projections of FLS shifts with climate change showed large shifts in species that flower before leafing, with flower–leaf interphases substantially shortened. For wind‐pollinated species, this shorter interphase would reduce the time period for efficient pollen transfer, and thus raises the possibility that wind‐pollinated taxa may experience reproductive declines due to FLS shifts.
Synthesis. Our study provides strong evidence that flower and leaf phenology responds with differential sensitivity to environmental variation. Because climate change will amplify variability in temperature across time and space, our findings suggest that FLS shifts may be large, but are likely to vary substantially among populations and species. Our analyses indicate that climate change will likely decrease flower–leaf interphases, especially in flowering‐first species. FLS shifts are likely to affect fitness for some species more strongly than others, thereby impacting community structure and function as climate continues to change.
... It greatly affects the conservation efforts of these species in nature since the information of the pattern and period of flowering and fruiting leads to be understanding of plants response to their environment. In addition, it is also a very important issue in the successful management of forest genetic resources (Khanduri et al., 2013;Micheloud et al., 2018). For APNP, basic knowledge about the behaviour of the in-situ conserved flowering and fruiting plants would have a positive impact on wildlife in APNP considering the feed of various wild animals in APNP is very dependent on the presence of fruits in their habitat. ...
Alas Purwo National Park (APNP) is a conservation area with lowland forest type. The adaptation of plants conserved is strongly influenced by environmental factors and the behaviour of flowering and fruiting. The aims of this research were to find the number, species, dominance, and abundance of flowering and fruiting plants, comparison of flowering and fruiting species, and environmental factors affecting the flowering and fruiting time in APNP observation tracks. This study used purposive random sampling in each observation track where flowering and fruiting plants were found. Environmental factors (temperature, humidity, light intensity, soil pH, elevation, and coordinates) in each observation track were measured. Data analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel and PAST 4.0. statistic program. The behaviour of flowering and fruiting plants species in APNP was unique. There were 90 species of flowering and fruiting plants in APNP from 45 families. Most species often found flowering and fruiting were Orophea enneandra, Polyalthia littoralis and Leea angulata which were scattered in Moto Lele, Patirtan Mas, and Sadengan Savanna. Fruiting plants species were more often found than flowering ones. Temperature and light intensity became the two most affecting environmental factors on flowering and fruiting plants behaviour. The study of flowering and fruiting behaviour is very important for genetic resources conservation and conservation areas management.
... In addition, a number of alleles that have a lower frequency and contribution to affect the genetic variation. In nature, S. wallichii grows in altitudes between 750 and 2400 m asl (Khanduri et al., 2013). According to Khanduri et al., (2013), the reproduction of S. wallichii in altitude 750 m and 900 m asl is impacted by the variation in the floral phenology. ...
... In nature, S. wallichii grows in altitudes between 750 and 2400 m asl (Khanduri et al., 2013). According to Khanduri et al., (2013), the reproduction of S. wallichii in altitude 750 m and 900 m asl is impacted by the variation in the floral phenology. The most important species in DR were seedling of C. calothyrsus (66.13%), the sapling of P. merkusii (112.70%), ...
The eruption in 2010 of Merapi Mount changed the diversity of plant species. The objective of this research was to investigate the diversity of plant species on Mount Merapi National Park (MMNP). The sampling area was divided into three different levels of damage (heavy, medium, and mirror). The research was conducted by using line-transect and quadrat method. We were conducted using line-transect and quadrat method. The research showed that Acacia decurrens has the highest Important Value Index (IVI) at the heavy damage area of Cangkringan Resort (CR) and Kemalang Resort (KR) as well as in mirror damage area of Selo Resort (SR). The most important species at medium damage area of Dukun Resort (DR) were Albizia lopantha and Pinus merkusii. The pioneer species at Non-Cover Area (NCA) among others were Trema cannabina, Pityrogramma calomelanos, Imperata cylindrical, Buddleja asiatica, Anaphalis javanica. Eupatorium riparium were the most important species of herb in all four locations based on SIMPER, but it was not dominant in NCA. The homogeneity of plant in Cangkringan Resort and Selo Resort (C < D < E) were normally distributed, whereas NCA, DR, and KR (E ≥ D) were homogeneous. Analysis of non-metric multidimensional scaling and value of ANOSIM (RANOSIM =0.69; p = 0.0001) demonstrated that all site locations have significance differences. This research was not only focusing on survey of vegetation diversity, but also frequency class distribution. Through this study of frequency of species provides a database for conservation biodiversity and restoration program.
... In addition, a number of alleles that have a lower frequency and contribution to affect the genetic variation. In nature, S. wallichii grows in altitudes between 750 and 2400 m asl (Khanduri et al., 2013). According to Khanduri et al., (2013), the reproduction of S. wallichii in altitude 750 m and 900 m asl is impacted by the variation in the floral phenology. ...
... In nature, S. wallichii grows in altitudes between 750 and 2400 m asl (Khanduri et al., 2013). According to Khanduri et al., (2013), the reproduction of S. wallichii in altitude 750 m and 900 m asl is impacted by the variation in the floral phenology. The most important species in DR were seedling of C. calothyrsus (66.13%), the sapling of P. merkusii (112.70%), ...
The eruption in 2010 of Merapi Mount changed the diversity of plant species. The objective of this research was to investigate the diversity of plant species on Mount Merapi National Park (MMNP). The sampling area was divided into three different levels of damage (heavy, medium, and minor). The research was conducted by using line-transect and quadrat method. The research was conducted by using line-transect and quadrat method. The research showed that Acacia decurrens has the highest Important Value Index (IVI) at the heavy damage area of Cangkringan Resort (CR) and Kemalang Resort (KR) as well as in minor damage area of Selo Resort (SR). The most important species at medium damage area of Dukun Resort (DR) were Albizia lopantha and Pinus merkusii. The pioneer species at Non-Cover Area (NCA) among others were Trema cannabina, Pityrogramma calomelanos, Imperata cylindrical, Buddleja asiatica, and Anaphalis javanica. Eupatorium riparium was the most important species of herb in all four locations based on SIMPER, but it was not dominant in NCA. The homogeneity of plant in Cangkringan Resort and Selo Resort (C < D < E) were normally distributed , whereas NCA, DR, and KR (E ≥ D) were homogeneous. Analysis of non-metric multidimensional scaling and value of ANOSIM (R ANOSIM = 0.69; p = 0.0001) demonstrated that all site locations have significance differences. This research was not only focusing on survey of vegetation diversity, but also frequency class distribution. Through this study of frequency of species provides a database for conservation biodiversity and restoration program.
... Basic understanding of flowering and fruiting period needs to be known, since the blooming periods of flowering and fruiting become important as it was the raw materials for essential oil production. By understanding how and when plant flowering and fruiting period then we might understand the physiological processes of plants and the response of plants to their environment (Brennan 1996;Khanduri et al. 2013;Micheloud et al. 2018). This environmental factor is important since it is related to the response of flowering and fruiting plants. ...
Lestari DA, Fiqa AP. 2020. Environmental factors influence on flowering and fruiting period of selected essential oil plants from Annonaceae. Biodiversitas 21: 910-921. Many species of Annonaceae family in tropics produce fragrances, due to the active ingredients for essential oils. Since the abundant of flower and fruit production, basic knowledge of flowering and fruiting periods needs to be known. The aim of this study was to determine influence of environmental factors to selected essential oil plants flowering and fruiting period from Annonaceae family, i.e. Artabotrys suaveolens, Cananga odorata, Desmos chinensis, Dasymaschalon borneense, Fissistigma latifolium, and Xylopia malayana. Observations were made throughout the year during dry and rainy season, with each phase carried out scoring qualitatively based on its abundance in plant canopy. Data on environmental factors (temperature, humidity, and rainfall intensity) were obtained from Registration Unit, Purwodadi Botanic Garden (PBG). Data of flowering and fruiting period were analyzed descriptively using Microsoft Excel, while the influence of environmental factors to flowering and fruiting period was analyzed by Biplot with Past 3.0. statistic program. Flowering period occurred in wet months at the end of year (November-December), while fruiting period occurred in long dry month. Initiation and bloom of flowering were influenced by temperature, while fruiting period was largely influenced by humidity and rainfall intensity, except for C. odorata whose fruiting period was influenced by temperature.
Key words: Annonaceae, environmental factors, essential oils, flowering, fruiting
