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Six years after the adoption of the standard 4.0, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), a non-profit association that deals with the study and the development of technology standards including those of Bluetooth, has officially released the main features of Bluetooth 5.0. It is one of the significant developments in short-range wireless commu...
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Transparent antennas have attracted much attention because they can meet the demands of the Internet of Things (IoT) and fifth generation (5G) mobile communication technologies. From this point of view, intensive research and development has been carried out to produce materials with high optical transparency and low electrical resistance. Research...
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... Bluetooth has been the most popular P2P tool for a long time widely available to most electronic devices including smartphones. Bluetooth (version 5.0 onwards) supports up to 2 Mbps data rate [4]. On the other hand, software enabled access point (SoftAP) based file sharing technology works by creating a personal network using an existing Wi-Fi network acting as a hub. ...
Visible light communication (VLC) has attracted much attention in recent years among industrial and academic researchers. The large scale use of energy efficient light emitting diodes (LEDs) in lighting applications offers a unique opportunity to use license free visible light as the carrier in wireless communications. It has many potentials to complement radio frequency (RF) based communication systems. Researchers working on VLC have mainly concentrated on improving the communication speeds to match with Wi-Fi though the latest generation Wi-Fi standards offer significantly higher capacity at longer communication distances. Thus, market penetration is challenging for VLC as Wi-Fi is already quite mature and ubiquitous. Commercialization of VLC can only be successful if VLC can offer applications where VLC is more advantageous over the existing RF-based solutions. Once VLC enters the market through specific applications and becomes more mature in the process, the ecosystem may gradually adopt VLC in broader applications. In this article, the state of the art of the three promising VLC applications, their issues, and possible solutions have been discussed.
... BLE beacons are inexpensive, small-sized, low-power devices that allow for easy installation and long battery life. In addition to the above-mentioned advantages of BLE technology, it also offers a significant increase in communication range over previous versions [13]. This feature allows for larger areas to be covered with fewer beacon devices, reducing deployment costs and simplifying the management of the considered application. ...
... Reduced energy consumption: BLE 5.0 technology is designed to provide very low power consumption, enabling extended battery life for battery-powered devices. In fact, in BLE, 5.0 devices can have up to 50% lower power consumption than previous versions [13]. • Wide coverage: BLE 5.0 offers a significant increase in range over previous versions. ...
... • Wide coverage: BLE 5.0 offers a significant increase in range over previous versions. The transmission range can reach up to 200 m in optimal outdoor conditions, enabling wider coverage even in indoor environments by reaching coverage distances of 40 m [13]. This translates into greater flexibility in anchor placement and coverage of larger areas with fewer devices, reducing deployment costs. ...
This paper addresses indoor localization using an anchor-based system based on Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) 5.0 technology, adopting the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) for the distance estimation. Different solutions have been proposed in the scientific literature to improve the performance of this localization technology, but a detailed performance comparison of these solutions is still missing. The aim of this work is to make an experimental analysis combining different solutions for the performance improvement of BLE-based indoor localization, identifying the most effective one. The considered solutions involve different RSSI signals’ conditioning, the use of anchor–tag distance estimation techniques, as well as approaches for estimating the unknown tag position. An experimental campaign was executed in a complex indoor environment, characterized by the continuous presence in the movement of working staff and numerous obstacles. The exploitation of multichannel transmission using RSSI signal aggregation techniques showed the greater performance improvement of the localization system, reducing the positioning error (from 1.5 m to about 1 m). The other examined solutions have shown a lesser impact in the performance improvement with a decrease or an increase in the positioning errors, depending on the considered combination of the adopted solutions.
... Several low-power protocols are proposed to operate on low-capability IoT devices along with such vast application contexts. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is among the most popular protocols in this field due to its great features and availability in smart devices globally used by most people for their work or personal affairs ( [1,2]). BLE has gained more attraction by introducing its fifth version, known as BLE5, which brings improved speed, a larger connection range, higher security, less power consumption, and many other features to the protocol [3]. ...
The proliferation of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) in diverse applications has led to a dense clustering of piconets in confined spaces. BLE operates within the congested 2.4GHz ISM band, shared by numerous short-range wireless protocols. Frequency hopping and Adaptive Frequency Hopping (AFH) mechanisms have been introduced in Bluetooth to reduce interference with other protocols in the same band. However, research shows these mechanisms are ineffective in reducing inter-piconet interferences. These studies have demonstrated the relationship between the number of piconets and the level of interference. In this paper, we investigate the relationship between the similarity of channel maps and the number of neighboring piconets in interference intensity. Then, we present a light and practical coordination framework to address this challenge. Our solution employs a BLE gateway to detect its surrounding piconet masters and computes a better channel map to reduce the impact of inter-piconet interferences. We also introduce the Isolated Channels (ICA) algorithm for channel allocation of neighboring piconets with controlled channel overlaps for BLE5. Simulation results show a 20 to 60% reduction of interference level in environments with high to moderate inter-piconet interferences. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first practical BLE5-compatible solution for mitigating the inter-piconet interference problem and does not require modifying the standard stack.
... BLE is advantageous in terms of its low power consumption. In 2016, Bluetooth 5 was released, enabling BLE to twice its speed (2 Mbit/s) at the expense of range or to double its capacity up to fourfold at the data rate cost [151]. The increase in transmissions may be critical for IoT devices, which connect several nodes throughout a particular area. ...
Healthcare monitoring systems in hospitals and other health facilities have grown significantly, and portable healthcare monitoring systems using emerging technologies such as Internet of Things (IoT) technologies have aided the advancement of healthcare monitoring systems. Many studies have focused on intelligent healthcare systems in an IoT context to improve components, including wearable sensors and hardware devices, intelligent data collecting and processing, and network connections. Even while these applications are necessary and helpful for enhancing wireless healthcare settings related to monitoring, detection, and diagnostics, it might be challenging to fully understand how IoT characteristics are currently intertwined with its architecture. Accordingly, this work adds to the academic literature by thoroughly reviewing all significant areas of wireless healthcare monitoring system advancements. This research also examines a state-of-the-art healthcare monitoring system component under IoT. One hundred and ninety-four related articles were collected and filtered based on the system components defined. This study includes a thorough review and a list of genuine concerns with novel critical solutions. The study can facilitate academics and practitioners by giving them direction and vital information for future research.
... The key factor in solving these issues lies in the parameter configuration of the T C (connection interval) [29], but the current BLE standard does not provide guidelines for the BLE chip controller to autonomously select the specific T C and there is no guarantee that the selected T C will be effective for BLE communication. To address these challenges, this paper presents a method for setting connection interval parameters based on BLE star networks, aiming to mitigate data loss and improve transmission stability of human motion capture systems.The method comprehensively judges various factors based on the timing information of each slave obtained using HCI after establishing the BLE star network structure, the delay from the slave sending data to the master receiving data, and the timing information such as the supervision timeout set to determine the connection interval of the BLE star network structure that adapts to different systems. ...
Wearable motion-capture systems offer promising avenues for human lower limb rehabilitation. However, unstable data transmission and attitude estimation challenge their practical application. Aiming at this problem, a reliable method utilizing wearable inertial sensors for rehabilitation applications is innovatively proposed and implemented within our designed wearable motion-capture systems tailored to patients with impaired lower limbs. A stable data transmission process based on star-type Bluetooth body sensor networks is designed by establishing a connection parameter setting method to guarantee reliable attitude estimation. Then, a robust attitude estimating method based on an improved gradient descent method is proposed to promote the anti-interference capability of the algorithm by introducing trust coefficients. Lower limb motion-capture experiments are conducted, and results show that the proposed method enables the system to maintain a package loss rate of no more than 0.24% and has a maximum coefficient of variation (CV) of 5.9% during the data transmission process. Attitude estimation reliability experiments reveal that the proposed algorithm substantially enhances anti-interference capabilities while preserving estimation accuracy. Compared to the state-of-the-art method, under acceleration shock, estimation errors decrease by up to 39.1% (roll), 42.9% (pitch), and 20.2% (yaw). When exposed to external magnetic field interference, conventional estimation algorithms falter, whereas the proposed method maintains an average error within 2°. Significance analysis underscores the method’s distinctiveness at the 0.05% significance level (
${p}< {0.05}$
). This study effectively bridges the gap between wearable inertial motion-capture systems and their application in clinical lower limb rehabilitation.
... A mesh node is not characterized by a permanent identification (e.g., an address); moreover, such a node may suddenly vanish from the network structure or convert to another node due to network evolution, such as the one provoked by the mobility of nodes, amount of available energy, problems with radio transmission, etc. A popular example of a mesh network is BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) Mesh proposal [15,16], with several implementations [17] and sub-standards/extensions [18], also related to security and privacy [19], and interoperability [20], addressed to not only classical computers, tablets, or smartphones, but also IoT (Internet of Things) devices based on (among others) Espressif, STM, and Nordic Semiconductor processors with built-in BLE unit. ...
... This technology finds extensive applications in storage and inventory management, supply chain monitoring, access control, aviation transportation, agriculture, healthcare, and more, improving efficiency and automation in various fields [39]. (b) Wireless Networks, in particular, suggest an immense role in sending data from a source to a connected gateway, a role supported by a variety of wireless network technologies such as WPAN, WLAN, WWAN, and LPWAN that are addressed in [18,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47]. The existing commercial 4G or 5G LTE communication networks, utilizing the transmission of data packets through the well-established Internet Protocol (IP), serves as a base to sustain the architecture of wireless communication networks in general. ...
... Bluetooth enables devices to communicate with each other wirelessly within a limited proximity. It is a short-range, low-power technology that is used in a wide variety of devices [41]. ii. ...
... Particularly in the context of establishing connectivity among IoT devices like sensors, the primary role is the selection of a network with wide coverage and low power consumption. The LoRa network meets these needs, is open, and is used in articles [25,[39][40][41][42]44]. In cases where the application requires a higher data rate, Bluetooth technology can be used, as mentioned in the article [44], but it has significantly higher power consumption compared to LoRa, and the coverage is 100 m for Bluetooth 4.x and 200 m for Bluetooth 5.x. ...
Digital Twins serve as virtual counterparts, replicating the characteristics and functional-ities of tangible objects, processes, or systems within the digital space, leveraging their capability to simulate and forecast real-world behavior. They have found valuable applications in smart farming, facilitating a comprehensive virtual replica of a farm that encompasses vital aspects such as crop cultivation, soil composition, and prevailing weather conditions. By amalgamating data from diverse sources, including soil, plants condition, environmental sensor networks, meteorological predictions , and high-resolution UAV and Satellite imagery, farmers gain access to dynamic and up-to-date visualization of their agricultural domains empowering them to make well-informed and timely choices concerning critical aspects like efficient irrigation plans, optimal fertilization methods , and effective pest management strategies, enhancing overall farm productivity and sustainability. This research paper aims to present a comprehensive overview of the contemporary state of research on digital twins in smart farming, including crop modelling, precision agriculture, and associated technologies, while exploring their potential applications and their impact on agricultural practices, addressing the challenges and limitations such as data privacy concerns, the need for high-quality data for accurate simulations and predictions, and the complexity of integrating multiple data sources. Lastly, the paper explores the prospects of digital twins in agriculture, highlighting potential avenues for future research and advancement in this domain.
... Therefore, a holistic approach is needed to find an optimal tradeoff, for example, between sensor node lifetime and measurement rate for the need of the specific use cases. New results of advances in sensor development, material improvements [1], new algorithms [2], and the next generation of wireless communication protocols [3] are published frequently. However, the development and integration of a whole use case solution that takes all aspects into account has not been reported yet. ...
The world population is continuously increasing. Smart farming is required to keep up with this development by producing more food in a sustainable way. In many new sensor solution developments, the results of the sensor itself is at the target, but the whole solution fails to meet the requirements of the agriculture sensing use cases: the developments suffer from singular approaches with a constricted view solely on the sensor, which might be exchangeable. In this article, we present a holistic approach that can help to overcome these challenges. This approach considers the whole use case, from sense, compute, and connect to power. The approach is discussed with the example of the PLANtAR project, where we develop a soil nitrate sensor and a new leaf wetness and microclimate sensor for application in a greenhouse. The resulting sensor is integrated into a sensor node and compared to a state-of-the-art system. The work shows what is needed to assess the best tradeoffs for agriculture use cases based on a horticulture application.
... The latter is interesting to estimate the distance and with this to know the location of the users. An example of using Beacons could be when merchants send exclusive offers to users based on their location and indoor route location [12]. There have been some significant changes to the way announcements can be made in Bluetooth 5, compared to Bluetooth 4. New PDUs related to announcements, scanning, and connection have been added to the Generic Access Profile (GAP). ...
... However, thanks to smart design, such as the new way the signal is modulated and the way the frequency spectrum is used, Bluetooth 5 uses fewer power resources. In fact, in the best case, the power consumption is reduced by about twice that of Bluetooth version 4.2 [12]. It is relevant to note that Bluetooth needs to be as good or better than IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee) solutions to become a competitive technology within IoT environments. ...
... The improvements that Bluetooth 5 implements, in principle, would imply that the devices consume a more significant amount of energy. However, this turns out to be the opposite, as Bluetooth 5 uses fewer power resources due to its efficient use of the frequency spectrum and how information is modulated; the power consumption is lower than the previous version of Bluetooth [12]. In the IoT requirements presented in the ITU recommendations, there are no requirements related to energy efficiency. ...
Bluetooth es una tecnología inalámbrica abierta, de corto alcance y de baja potencia, cuyo objetivo es simplificar la comunicación entre diferentes tipos de dispositivos. Bluetooth tiene cinco versiones, divididas en dos modos de funcionamiento principales, Classic Bluetooth y Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). BLE está diseñado para el uso de aplicaciones IoT (Internet of Things - Internet de las Cosas). La quinta versión de Bluetooth mejora todas las prestaciones para superar a otras tecnologías que quieren ser la base de las comunicaciones IoT. Bluetooth 5 logra mayor alcance, mayor velocidad de transmisión de datos, soporte mejorado para anuncios y eficiencia energética que las versiones anteriores. La nueva función de topología de malla hace que Bluetooth sea un buen candidato para las comunicaciones de Internet de las Cosas, ya que permite arquitecturas descentralizadas. En este trabajo se realiza una revisión de la versión 5 de Bluetooth. Además, se presentan los requisitos de operación de IoT, basados en las recomendaciones de la UIT (Union Internacional de Telecomunicaciones). La contribución de este trabajo es el análisis de las características de Bluetooth 5 para determinar si cumplen o no con los requisitos de IoT propuestos por la ITU. Los resultados del análisis indican que Bluetooth 5 cumple con los requisitos de alto nivel y aproximadamente la mitad de los requisitos de IoT estándar de cada categoría.
... The latter is interesting to estimate the distance and with this to know the location of the users. An example of using Beacons could be when merchants send exclusive offers to users based on their location and indoor route location [12]. There have been some significant changes to the way announcements can be made in Bluetooth 5, compared to Bluetooth 4. New PDUs related to announcements, scanning, and connection have been added to the Generic Access Profile (GAP). ...
... However, thanks to smart design, such as the new way the signal is modulated and the way the frequency spectrum is used, Bluetooth 5 uses fewer power resources. In fact, in the best case, the power consumption is reduced by about twice that of Bluetooth version 4.2 [12]. It is relevant to note that Bluetooth needs to be as good or better than IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee) solutions to become a competitive technology within IoT environments. ...
... The improvements that Bluetooth 5 implements, in principle, would imply that the devices consume a more significant amount of energy. However, this turns out to be the opposite, as Bluetooth 5 uses fewer power resources due to its efficient use of the frequency spectrum and how information is modulated; the power consumption is lower than the previous version of Bluetooth [12]. In the IoT requirements presented in the ITU recommendations, there are no requirements related to energy efficiency. ...
Bluetooth es una tecnología inalámbrica abierta, de corto alcance y de baja potencia, cuyo objetivo es simplificar la comunicación entre diferentes tipos de dispositivos. Bluetooth tiene cinco versiones, divididas en dos modos de funcionamiento principales, Classic Bluetooth y Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). BLE está diseñado para el uso de aplicaciones IoT (Internet of Things - Internet de las Cosas). La quinta versión de Bluetooth mejora todas las prestaciones para superar a otras tecnologías que quieren ser la base de las comunicaciones IoT. Bluetooth 5 logra mayor alcance, mayor velocidad de transmisión de datos, soporte mejorado para anuncios y eficiencia energética que las versiones anteriores. La nueva función de topología de malla hace que Bluetooth sea un buen candidato para las comunicaciones de Internet de las Cosas, ya que permite arquitecturas descentralizadas. En este trabajo se realiza una revisión de la versión 5 de Bluetooth. Además, se presentan los requisitos de operación de IoT, basados en las recomendaciones de la UIT (Union Internacional de Telecomunicaciones). La contribución de este trabajo es el análisis de las características de Bluetooth 5 para determinar si cumplen o no con los requisitos de IoT propuestos por la ITU. Los resultados del análisis indican que Bluetooth 5 cumple con los requisitos de alto nivel y aproximadamente la mitad de los requisitos de IoT estándar de cada categoría.
