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The emergence of Bluetooth as a default radio interface has
allowed handheld electronic devices to be instantly interconnected as
ad-hoc networks. These short range ad-hoc wireless networks, called
piconets, operate in the unlicensed 2.45 GHz ISM
(industrial-scientific-medical) band where up to eight devices may be
used to configure single or overl...
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Context 1
... within a small distance (up to 10m [10]), hence offering added potential for a new range of applications. Between two and up to eight devices form a piconet, with a master device coordinating access by a polling scheme. A given device may take part in more than one piconet, leading to overlapping piconet configurations, also known as a scatternet (Fig. 1). As can be seen from the specification [1], the Bluetooth design is such that the interference is often due to intersected transmission among independent neighboring piconets, since devices in a piconet coordinate their medium access using time multiplexed mode. Among other things, this paper considers the impact of such interferences ...
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... Fig. 10 depicts the behavior of P s versus r for G = 0.43. Similarly, the two curves present compatible trends. The differences between the curves of Figs. 9 and 10 are due to the use of higher interfering traffic G in Fig. 9. Performance of DHx ACL Links: It is expected that most existing IP-based packet data transfer applications would be ...
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... are due to the use of higher interfering traffic G in Fig. 9. Performance of DHx ACL Links: It is expected that most existing IP-based packet data transfer applications would be mapped using connectionless unreliable Bluetooth ACL links of type DHx. Therefore, their throughput, including the presence of interference, is obtained in this section. Fig. 11 shows data throughput over DHx ACL links when using 1-slot, 3-slot and 5-slot data packets without interference. As expected, DH5 ACL links offer higher channel Piconet Bluetooth device 5m Simulation Simulation Simulation Simulation Simulation utilization than the other two. Overall, higher throughput is achieved as compared to using ...
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... over DHx ACL links when using 1-slot, 3-slot and 5-slot data packets without interference. As expected, DH5 ACL links offer higher channel Piconet Bluetooth device 5m Simulation Simulation Simulation Simulation Simulation utilization than the other two. Overall, higher throughput is achieved as compared to using DH1 and DH3. On one hand, Fig. 11 also shows the relative inefficiency of DH1 ACL links and illustrates how these fail to take advantage of the channel. On the other hand, there is very little performance difference between DH3 and DH5 ACL links, although it may be decided by applications requiring quality of service. Fig. 12 illustrates similar results now with the ...
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... as compared to using DH1 and DH3. On one hand, Fig. 11 also shows the relative inefficiency of DH1 ACL links and illustrates how these fail to take advantage of the channel. On the other hand, there is very little performance difference between DH3 and DH5 ACL links, although it may be decided by applications requiring quality of service. Fig. 12 illustrates similar results now with the presence of interference. Note that this has a considerable influence on the performance. In all the scenarios, the throughput does not show any noticeable reduction. Table 3 gives a summary of DHx ACL average throughput values with and without the presence of interference. These are compared ...
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Citations
... The author speculated the use of combined approaches such as traffic scheduling, packet encapsulation and the ARQ would effectively mitigate co-channel interference. Cordeiro et al. [115] also proposed a combined technique that involved the AFH and Bluetooth carrier sensing to mitigate the persistent interference [116] and intermittent interference [117]. The persistent interference refers to the interference from the WLAN to the Bluetooth network, whereas the intermittent interference is from Bluetooth to the WLAN. ...
More and more devices, such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4 devices forming Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) and IEEE 802.11 devices constituting Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), share the 2.4 GHz Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band in the realm of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Cities. However, the coexistence of these devices could pose a real challenge—co-channel interference that would severely compromise network performances. Although the coexistence issues has been partially discussed elsewhere in some articles, there is no single review that fully summarises and compares recent research outcomes and challenges of IEEE 802.15.4 networks, Bluetooth and WLANs together. In this work, we revisit and provide a comprehensive review on the coexistence and interference mitigation for those three types of networks. We summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the current methodologies, analysis and simulation models in terms of numerous important metrics such as the packet reception ratio, latency, scalability and energy efficiency. We discover that although Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4 networks are both WPANs, they show quite different performances in the presence of WLANs. IEEE 802.15.4 networks are adversely impacted by WLANs, whereas WLANs are interfered by Bluetooth. When IEEE 802.15.4 networks and Bluetooth co-locate, they are unlikely to harm each other. Finally, we also discuss the future research trends and challenges especially Deep-Learning and Reinforcement-Learning-based approaches to detecting and mitigating the co-channel interference caused by WPANs and WLANs.
... Some researches have examined the packet error rate (PER) [10]- [14]. In [10], the throughputs of various packet types are analyzed using simulation, taking into account errors in ACK packets. ...
... The PER and the transfer delay in the presence of interference between Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11 WLAN are obtained using simulation in [13], [14]. ...
... Note that (25) is identical to (14) and (4) of [8] in the error-free environments. ...
This paper analyzes the performance of a Bluetooth piconet in error-prone environments. A statistical characterization of a waiting time, an end-to-end delay, and a goodput are derived analytically in terms of the arrival rates, the number of slaves, and the packet error rate (PER). For simplicity, half-symmetric piconet is assumed in this analysis. Both exhaustive and limited scheduling are considered. The analytic results are validated by simulations.
... A simulator was constructed to evaluate the CCAP concept in terms of the probability of occurrence of interference, rather than in terms of modelling the Bluetooth radio channel itself, the latter having been evaluated in other studies [6]. In the simulations conducted each piconet consisted of a one master and one slave. ...
Bluetooth is a short range wireless interface that offers data transmission rates of the order of 721 kbit/s which is comparable with ADSL data rates, but which could be regarded as being too low for deployment as a limited range wireless access point. The capacity of a wireless access point based on Bluetooth technology can be increased significantly by co-locating a number of Bluetooth transducers in a hotspot scenario. This paper describes a technique which reduces mutual interference in co-located Bluetooth transducers by coordinating the hopping frequencies of the individual devices. Such a system can then provide attractive data transmission rates when deployed in wireless access point applications.
... In such a way, we end up with what is commonly referred to as a block-fading multiple-access channel. Throughout the rest of the paper, the possible effect of the mutual interference among overlapping piconets [20] is neglected. Although this is known to be a limiting factor in the performance of the Bluetooth radio system [14], in the scenario we envision only a very limited number of Bluetooth devices is present (in most cases forming just a single piconet), so that the overall impact of the potentially damaging mutual interference may be neglected. ...
Wireless networks are beginning to be employed in industrial automation systems as extensions of field networks (fieldbuses), in order to link devices which may not be equipped with a wired connection. In this way, all the benefits deriving from the use of a fieldbus may be maintained. This paper investigates a wireless extension of Profibus DP, one of the most popular fieldbus standards, based on the Bluetooth radio interface. After a description of how the data link layer services of Bluetooth could be used to implement the Profibus DP functions, we present a theoretical network performance analysis. The results obtained are then validated by means of numerical simulations.
... Performance analysis of the Bluetooth physical layer is addressed in [8], but the location relation between piconets is modeled by a probabilistic model. Reference [1] further improves [8] by considering real location relation of piconets. ...
... Those vacant periods without data transmission activities are designed mainly for radio transceiver turnover, preparing for stabilizing at the next frequency hop. Define , , 3, 5, to be the corresponding data occupancy ratio for an -slot packet at the th time slot (1) According to the Bluetooth specification, , , and for one-slot, three-slot, and five-slot data packets (without error correction capability), respectively. Since the differences between 's are very small in Bluetooth, below we will approximate them by a single value for simplicity, i.e., . ...
... We assume that the frequency hopping patterns of piconets are independent and random. 1 With the interference from , we first derive the success probability of -slot packets in , where . We start by introducing the concept of "slot delimiter." ...
Operating in the unlicensed 2.4-GHz ISM band, a Bluetooth piconet will inevitably encounter the interference problem from other piconets. With a special channel model and packet formats, one research issue is how to predict the packet collision effect in a multipiconet environment. In several earlier works, El-Hoiydi (2001), El-Hoiydi and Decotignie (2001), Lim et al. (2001), this problem is studied, but the results are still very limited in that packets are usually assumed to be uniform in lengths and in that time slots of each piconet are assumed to be fully occupied by packets. These assumptions have been successfully removed in the analytical results proposed in Lin and Tseng (2003). In this paper, we further improve the analytical results in Lin and Tseng (2003) by taking into account the frequency-hopping guard time effect in Bluetooth baseband. The result would offer a way to better estimate the network performance in a multipiconet environment.
... In [3] and [5], the environment characteristics and the spatial distribution of terminals that render the network performance parameters inhomogeneous over the area have not been considered in PLP evaluation. A first attempt to account for spatial distribution of the users in the PLP, calculation was made in [7] where a closed form for the PLP was obtained under Poisson traffic assumption and assuming simple propagation models. Another analytical approach for the calculation of PLP was presented in [6], but results were obtained by restricting the number of overlapping piconets to three and still assuming a simple propagation model. ...
... In this paper, we provide a semi-analytical approach to evaluate PLP accounting for the geometry of the environment, its propagation characteristics, and for the position of the Reference Receiver (RR) in the area. The PLP formulation obtained in this paper is different from that in [7] and, as shown in the following , many of the (restrictive) assumptions indicated in [7] can be easily removed using the proposed semi-analytical approach . We expand the derivation of the results presented in [9], and we use PLP to evaluate the upper and the lower bounds for the network aggregate throughput and the average packet transmission time. ...
... In this paper, we provide a semi-analytical approach to evaluate PLP accounting for the geometry of the environment, its propagation characteristics, and for the position of the Reference Receiver (RR) in the area. The PLP formulation obtained in this paper is different from that in [7] and, as shown in the following , many of the (restrictive) assumptions indicated in [7] can be easily removed using the proposed semi-analytical approach . We expand the derivation of the results presented in [9], and we use PLP to evaluate the upper and the lower bounds for the network aggregate throughput and the average packet transmission time. ...
Bluetooth is a low-cost, short-range wireless technology capable of providing many communication functionalities, ranging from wire replacement to simple personal area networking. In Bluetooth local networking applications, a critical issue still under study is the evaluation of the network performance when multiple piconets are simultaneously active in the same area, thus, causing mutual interference. We provide a closed-form expression for the packet loss probability in Bluetooth dense piconet area accounting for capture effects due to propagation losses. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is assessed by comparing the analytical results with those obtained from Monte Carlo simulations. By considering different scenarios, we show the dependence of results on the geometry and on the characteristics of the environment. It is observed that packet loss probability can significantly change with the position of the reference receiver in the area, as well as with the extension of the piconets area as compared with the coverage area of the receiver. We use the packet loss probability to evaluate the upper and the lower bounds of the network aggregate throughput and the average packet transmission time. Due to propagation effects, large variations of these parameters with the position of the reference receiver in the area are evidenced.
... Eventually, this WPAN can be integrated with large wide area networks (WANs) to provide Internet connectivity in addition to access among these devices. As previous studies have pointed out [7,11,13,23,34], it is much likely that Bluetooth devices and IEEE 802.11 [19] wireless local area networks (WLANs) stations (in this work we use the term WLAN and IEEE 802.11/802.11b interchangeably ) operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM (industrialscientific-medical ) frequency band should be able to coexist as well as cooperate with each other, and access each other's resources. ...
... An important challenge in defining the BlueStar architecture is that both Bluetooth and WLANs employ the same 2.4 GHz ISM band and can possibly impact the perfor- mance [1,7,12,17]. We refer to the interference generated by WLAN devices over the Bluetooth channel as persistent interference [7], while the presence of multiple piconets in the vicinity creates interference [7,9,11,23,34] referred to as intermittent interference [7,9]. To combat both of these interference sources and provide effective coexistence, we propose to employ a unique hybrid approach of adaptive frequency hopping (AFH) [14] and a new mechanism called Bluetooth carrier sense (BCS) in Blue- Star. ...
... Contrary to IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth carrier sensing would be much simpler due to the nature of its MAC protocol [9,11,22]. Therefore, in this work we assume that Bluetooth devices possess a sensing capability. We incorporate BCS into Bluetooth without any modifications to the current slot structure. ...
Bluetooth is a radio technology for Wireless Personal Area Networking (WPAN) operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band. So far, there has been little research on how Bluetooth-enabled devices can effectively and efficiently have uninterrupted access to wide area networks (WAN) such as the Internet. We introduce a novel architecture (BlueStar) whereby selected Bluetooth devices, called Bluetooth Wireless Gateways (BWGs), are also IEEE 802.11 enabled so that these BWGs could serve as egress/ingress points to/from the IEEE 802.11 wireless network. We propose mitigating interference between Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11, by employing a hybrid approach of adaptive frequency hopping (AFH) and Bluetooth carrier sense (BCS) of the channels. AFH labels channels as “bad” or “good”, and Bluetooth devices only access those channels in the “good” state, whereas BCS is used to avoid collision by sensing the channel prior to any transmission. By combining AFH and BCS, we drastically minimize the effect of the worst-case interference scenario wherein both a Bluetooth and an IEEE 802.11 interface are co-located in a single device. BlueStar enables Bluetooth devices, belonging to either a piconet or a scatternet, to access the WAN through the BWG without the need for any fixed Bluetooth access points, while utilizing widely deployed base of IEEE 802.11 networks. Moreover, we define the protocol stack employed by BlueStar as well as indicate how BWGs efficiently manage their capacity allocation through the different systems. We also mathematically derive an upper bound on the number BWGs needed in a Bluetooth scatternet so that uninterrupted access to all Bluetooth devices could be provided.
... These sensor network applications are characterized by thousands of nodes embedded in the physical world, and a Bluetooth RF link to enable them to form a network by only bridging these sensor nodes within radio range [22,32,33]. These call for solutions to be developed that are applicable to both small scale and large scale Bluetooth networks, and that aim at keeping interference at minimum levels [21,23] due to the envisioned large number of piconets. As we shall see, DSA satisfies such scalability requirements as opposed to existing solutions. ...
... Upon expiration of T IDLE , the connection is terminated and its resources freed up. Note that the master keeps track of all connections within the piconet in order to assign slots to the devices, however it is not generally believed [21] that piconets, which are capable of having at most eight devices [1], will have a large number of connections. Given that, in our design, we assume that at most CON- N THRES ¼ 16 connections can be simultaneously present in a piconet, which turns out to be a very reasonable number. ...
... Here, we refer to this technique as New Piconet Per Connection (NPPC). To better understand the trade-offs of NPPC and DSA, it becomes inevitable to study the nature of inter-piconet interference [21,28], also referred to as intermittent interference [23], and compare the schemes with respect to this aspect. Numerical results, proof of correctness, and details of the analytical model presented next can be found in [34]. ...
Bluetooth is a promising wireless technology aiming at supporting electronic devices to be instantly interconnected into short-range ad hoc networks. The Bluetooth medium access control protocol is based on the Master/Slave concept wherein any communication between slave devices has to go through the Master. While this model provides for simplicity, it incurs longer delay between any two slaves devices due to far from optimal packet forwarding, the use of double the bandwidth, and also wastes additional energy at the Master. Moreover, if more than two devices want to communicate as a group, this can only be achieved by either multiple unicast transmissions or a piconet-wide broadcast, clearly resulting in inefficiency. In this paper, we propose a novel Dynamic Slot Assignment (DSA) scheme whereby the Master device dynamically assigns slots to Slaves so as to allow them to communicate directly with each other without any Master intervention. This proposed communication architecture also provides for Quality of Service (QoS) requests, admission control, and multi-device conversation by which a multicast-like communication is implemented within a piconet. Through extensive simulation, we observe that DSA drastically enhances Bluetooth performance in terms of delay and throughput, while significantly reducing power consumption at the master and also of the overall piconet.
... These sensor network applications are characterized by thousands of nodes embedded in the physical world, and a Bluetooth RF link to enable them to form a network by only bridging these sensor nodes within their radio range [22,32,33]. This calls for solutions to be developed that are equally applicable to both small scale and large scale Bluetooth networks, and that aims at keeping interference at the minimum level [6,21,23]. As it is shown later, our proposed schemes satisfy such scalability requirements as opposed to existing solutions. ...
... As detailed later on, we temporarily use the broadcast address in order to implement multicasting. If we assume a uniform distribution of connection requests within a piconet, we can say that slave-to-slave communication will be present in approximately 75% of all connections [21], thereby stressing the need for supporting and optimizing such cases. ...
... Upon expiration of T IDLE , the connection is terminated and its resources freed up. Note that the master keeps track of all the connections within the piconet in order to assign slots to the devices, however it is not generally believed [21] that piconets, which are capable of having at most eight devices [1], will have a large number of connections. Therefore, in our design, we assume that at most CONN THRES = 16 connections can be simultaneously present in a piconet, which turns out to be a very reasonable number. ...
Bluetooth is a promising wireless technology aiming at supporting electronic devices to be instantly interconnected into short-range ad hoc networks. The Bluetooth medium access control protocol is based on the Master/Slave concept wherein any communication between slave devices has to go through the Master. While this model is simple, it incurs longer delay between any two slave devices due to the use of non-optimal packet forwarding scheme and the use of double the bandwidth at the Master. Moreover, if more than two devices want to communicate as a group, this can only be achieved by either multiple unicast transmissions or a piconet-wide broadcast from the master. To handle these issues efficiently, we propose a novel combination of Dynamic Slot Assignment (DSA) and piconet partitioning. With DSA, the piconet Master dynamically assigns slots to Slaves so as to allow them to communicate directly with each other without any intervention from the Master. Such proposed communication architecture provides for Quality of Service (QoS) requests, admission control, and multi-device conversation by which a multicast-like communication is feasible within a piconet. To widen the scope of DSA, we propose QoS-driven Enhanced DSA (EDSA) where dynamic piconet partitioning and scatternet support comes into picture. Devices are grouped in piconets according to their connection endpoints in EDSA, enabling it to be employed over a scatternet. We have performed extensive simulations and observe that these schemes drastically enhance Bluetooth performance in terms of delay and throughput, while significantly reducing network power consumption.
... These sensor network applications are characterized by thousands of nodes embedded in the physical world, and a Bluetooth RF link to enable them to form a network by only bridging these sensor nodes within their radio range [22,32,33]. This calls for solutions to be developed that are equally applicable to both small scale and large scale Bluetooth networks, and that aims at keeping interference at the minimum level [6,21,23]. As it is shown later, our proposed schemes satisfy such scalability requirements as opposed to existing solutions. ...
... Upon expiration of T IDLE , the connection is terminated and its resources freed up. Note that the master keeps track of all the connections within the piconet in order to assign slots to the devices, however it is not generally believed [21] that piconets, which are capable of having at most eight devices [1], will have a large number of connections. Therefore, in our design, we assume that at most CONN THRES = 16 connections can be simultaneously present in a piconet, which turns out to be a very reasonable number. ...
... Another solution would be piconet partitioning for every new connection, wherein a pair of slaves forms a piconet by themselves if frequent communication is taking place between them [14]. However, this approach incurs additional problems such as scatternet scheduling and, more importantly, this cannot be done indefinitely as interference levels may become unacceptable [6,16,21,23]. Additionally, this solution makes a very unrealistic assumption that all connections are pair-wise distinct node in order to piconet partitioning to be successful. ...
Bluetooth is a promising wireless technology aiming at supporting electronic devices to be instantly interconnected into short-range ad hoc networks. The Bluetooth medium access control protocol is based on the master/slave concept wherein any communication between slave devices has to go through the master. While this model is simple, it incurs longer delay between any two slave devices due to the use of non-optimal packet forwarding scheme and the use of double the bandwidth at the master. Moreover, if more than two devices want to communicate as a group, this can only be achieved by either multiple unicast transmissions or a piconet-wide broadcast from the master. To handle these issues efficiently, we propose a novel combination of dynamic slot assignment (DSA) and piconet partitioning. With DSA, the piconet master dynamically assigns slots to slaves so as to allow them to communicate directly with each other without any intervention from the master. Such proposed communication architecture provides for quality of service (QoS) requests, admission control, and multi-device conversation by which a multicast-like communication is feasible within a piconet. To widen the scope of DSA, we propose QoS-driven enhanced DSA (EDSA) where dynamic piconet partitioning and scatternet support comes into picture. Devices are grouped in piconets according to their connection endpoints in EDSA, enabling it to be employed over a scatternet. We have performed extensive simulations and observe that these schemes drastically enhance Bluetooth performance in terms of delay and throughput, while significantly reducing network power consumption.
