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Smart devices have become an essential part of the architectures such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs), and Internet of Everything (IoE). In contrast, these architectures constitute a system to realize the concept of smart cities and, ultimately, a smart planet. The adoption of these smart devices expands to different...
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Context 1
... depicted in Figure 5 the blockchain-based layered architecture has been presented. It adds a BC layer to the generalized smart city layered architecture as presented in Figure 3 to integrate IoT-enabled smart devices in blockchain-enabled CPSs (such as smart homes, smart hospitals, etc.). ...
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... contrast, the command-and-control work on the application layer defines the applications for the asset's behavior at the physical layer. As shown in Figure 5, the blockchain layer is of immense importance as it offers blockchain as a service (BaaS) in a smart city concept [105,106]. The underlying DLT and the consensus mechanisms provide robust security for communication that cannot be tempered. ...
Context 3
... shown in Figure 5, the BC layer opens many more opportunities to utilize BCbased services, such as blockchain-based tokenization schemes for asset identification and authentication schemes in smart city architecture. After a huge appreciation of Token creation in 2018, with over 1132 ICOs and STOs collecting nearly USD 20 billion [107], the concept of Token has gained wide attention. ...
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... shown in Figure 5, blockchain-based solutions have been proposed to provide security services (i.e., confidentiality, integrity, availability, and authentication schemes) for data utilizing cryptographic security schemes. It enables the system to attain robust security and privacy for connected parties and message exchanges. ...
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The mechanisms based on the distributed environment have become an obvious choice for solutions, while they have not been limited only to a specific domain (i.e., crypto-currency). Rather, it has influenced other industries to develop robust privacy and security solutions, such as smart houses, smart electrical grids, smart agriculture, smart healt...
Citations
... A physical exchange between IoT devices was explored at the application level based on the identification of sensitive data flows. Authentication mechanisms were categorized into centralized and distributed architectures in [25] and IoT-enabled devices were discussed for their security issues. The authors examined and analyzed the findings regarding computational costs, communication overheads, and robustness of the proposed literature schemes. ...
... Securing data storage to enhance IoT security solutions for smart cities was discussed in [14, 16-18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 35, 36, 61. Finally, authors in [12,13,15,17,18,20,23,25,29,31,36 studied the IoT security for smart cities from a security incident response perspective. Table V exhibits the analysis of IoT security models proposed in the literature for smart cities from different security aspects. ...
Security solutions for the Internet of Things (IoT) in smart cities are complex and require a comprehensive approach to success. Several models and frameworks have been developed focusing on IoT security. Some deal with access controls and security and some with authentication and authorization in various forms. Literature still lacks a comprehensive IoT security model for smart cities, which can support the implementation of IoT. Accordingly, this study has set two objectives: to explore the present studies in IoT security for smart cities and to develop an IoT security model for smart cities based on the metamodeling approach. According to the findings of the study, the existing IoT security models for smart cities consider seven security aspects: authentication and authorization, device management, intrusion detection and prevention, device integrity, secure communication, secure data storage, and response to security incidents. The model developed in this study, called IoT Security Metamodel (IoTSM), combines these aspects. IoTSM captures the main qualities of IoT security practices in smart cities through domain security processes.
... By capitalizing the decentralized technologies, cities can create more efficient, transparent, and citizen-focused urban environments that are more democratic and secure [2]. Decentralized Smart City of Things (DSCoT) has been proposed in our earlier research in [3], [4], and [5] for the identification, authentication, and digitization of assets (admin, users, fog, and smart device/s) in cyber-physical systems (CPS/s). ...
... Since the internet in Web2 uses traditional protocols (TCP/IP), the underlying architectures of the CPS/s inherit the security and authentication issues which open the doors to a possible breach for the networks themselves [2]. Additional factors that contribute to the vulnerability of customer premises equipment (CPE) include inadequate security features implemented by manufacturers, such as the use of weak SSL versions (e.g., v2, v3, and CBC mode), weak default login details, open ports, and unencrypted or self-signed security certificates, etc. ...
The blueprint of the proposed Decentralized Smart City of Things (DSCoT) has been presented with smart contracts development and deployment for robust security of resources in the context of cyber-physical systems (CPS) for smart cities. Since non-fungibility provided by the ERC721 standard for the cyber-physical systems (CPSs) components such as the admin, user, and IoT-enabled smart device/s in literature is explicitly missing, the proposed DSCoT devised the functionality of identification and authentication of the assets. The proposed identification and authentication mechanism in cyber-physical systems (CPSs) employs smart contracts to generate an authentication access code based on extended non-fungible tokens (NFTs), which are used to authorize access to the corresponding assets. The evaluation and development of the extended NFT protocol for cyber-physical systems have been presented with the public and private blockchain deployments for evaluation comparison. The comparison demonstrated up to 96.69% promising results in terms of execution cost, efficiency, and time complexity compared to other proposed NFT-based solutions.
... Various architectural designs can be employed to materialize the vision of smart cities. These smart cities encompass a wide array of cyber-physical systems that leverage intelligent devices and technologies, spanning sectors such as education, healthcare, and construction services (Khalil et al., 2022). ...
... However, it should be noted that enhancing infrastructure alone is not enough to improve citizens' well-being in smart cities. According to Khalil et al. (2022), smart public services play a vital role in enhancing the happiness and well-being of urban residents. The findings of this study support the notion that the provision of quality public services and the preservation of the environment in smart cities directly influence residents' satisfaction. ...
Smart cities present a potential remedy as crowded and complex metropolitan regions increase in the digital era. A measurement of whether establishing a smart city would be compatible with Sustainable Development Goals 3 and 11 is undertaken to enhance its inhabitants' well-being. A total of 105 and 134 citizens of the smart cities in China and Malaysia, respectively, received online surveys. The data was analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results offer empirical evidence that reinforces the theoretical underpinnings of smart city development. Additionally, the findings emphasize citizen satisfaction in improving residents' well-being, acting as a mediator.
... In recent years, many countries have continued to promote the construction of data trading, but the existing data trading markets generally have common problems such as a lack of data ownership systems, unreliable identity authenticators, unclear circulation rules, and lack of coordination in trading governance [3]. As the first barrier to ensuring data security [4], identity authentication is a key issue in data trading, and its technology largely affects trading security and reliability [5]. The development of data trading puts forward higher requirements for authentication technology in the trading process [6]. ...
With the increase in the market share of data trading, the risks such as identity authentication and authority management are increasingly intensified. Aiming at the problems of centralization of identity authentication, dynamic changes of identities, and ambiguity of trading authority in data trading, a two-factor dynamic identity authentication scheme for data trading based on alliance chain (BTDA) is proposed. Firstly, the use of identity certificates is simplified to solve the problems of large calculation and difficult storage. Secondly, a two-factor dynamic authentication strategy is designed, which uses distributed ledger to achieve dynamic identity authentication throughout the data trading. Finally, a simulation experiment is carried out on the proposed scheme. The theoretical comparison and analysis with similar schemes show that the proposed scheme has lower cost, higher authentication efficiency and security, easier authority management, and can be widely used in various fields of data trading scenarios.
... On the other hand, these architectural designs make up a system to implement the idea of smart cities. These smart gadgets are being used by many cyber-physical systems in smart cities, such as smart social security, smart healthcare, smart education, smart construction services, etc. (Khalil et al., 2022). Perceived smart public service refers to the level of intelligence associated with public services as perceived by urban residents. ...
In the digital era, smart cities are a potential solution as cities get more crowded and complex. This study investigates and assesses whether citizens' well-being is promoted by developing a smart city, consistent with Sustainable Development Goals 3 and 11. Online questionnaires were distributed to 105 and 134 citizens residing in Malaysia and China's smart cities respectively. Data was analysed using a structural equation modelling technique (SEM). This research supports the theoretical underpinnings of how smart cities are considered to be developed and the importance of citizen satisfaction as a mediator when evaluating citizens' well-being. Keywords: smart cities; well-being; citizen satisfaction; SDG 3 & 11 eISSN: 2398-4287 © 2023. The Authors. Published for AMER & cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v8i24.4636
... Ensuring safe custody of patient keys is a critical component of any blockchain-based HIE system. One approach to address this challenge is to use a key management system (KMS) designed to securely store and manage cryptographic keys, including private keys [65]. A KMS can offer a range of features and safeguards to protect private keys, such as encryption, access control, and backup and recovery capabilities. ...
This study attempts to explain the development and progress of the technology used for sharing health information across health care organizations (such as hospitals and physicians' offices). First, we describe the strengths and weaknesses of traditional sharing models, health information exchange (HIE), and blockchain-based HIE. Second, the potential use of nonfungible token (NFT) protocols in HIE models is proposed as the next possible move for information-sharing initiatives in health care. In addition to some potential opportunities and distinguishing features (eg, ownability, verifiability, and incentivization), we identify the uncertainty and risks associated with the application of NFTs, such as the lack of a dedicated regulatory framework for legal ownership of digital patient data. This paper is among the first to discuss the potential of NFTs in health care. The use of NFTs in HIE networks could generate a new stream of research for future studies. This study provides practical insights into how the technological foundations of information-sharing efforts in health care have developed and diversified from earlier forms.
... These interlinked devices, capable of sharing user data, run different applications with unique vulnerabilities that can be exploited [ 12]. Any single compromised device can result in the rest of the devices across the network being compromised via several methods such as man-in-the-middle attacks, social engineering, denial of service, unauthorized remote recording, botnets, ransomware, data and identity theft, parameter Tampering attacks, Trojan attacks, data spoofing attacks and buffer overflow attacks among others [ 13,14]. This therefore poses serious and unique security requirements which in the long run, prevent the widespread adoption and application of the many services offered in smart cities. ...
From the beginning of the 21st century, the entire world suffers from two critical problems: the growth of the world population and the improvement of life expectancy of people owing to the development of healthcare facilities. This has ultimately led to urbanization where a lot of people migrated to cities in search of better prospects. To facilitate those migrating into these cities and with the purpose of better provision of city services, smart cities have emerged thereby connecting everything within the city with the aid of a complex set of technologies. The Internet of Things (IoT) is the fundamental building block of smart cities applied in a variety of smart city solutions, offering real-time information exchange and facilitating ubiquitous connectivity. As IoT is a novel technology that is still in its infancy age and requiring continuous internet connectivity, it paves way for never-ending cyber-attacks targeting smart city services and ultimately endangering the lives of city residents. On the other hand, the security of smart city solutions has always been neglected during the development phase which also endangers the entire city’s ecosystem resulting into cyber-attacks from multiple attack vectors. In this chapter, we are providing a brief review of security enhancement capabilities and utilities that can cope with smart cities for the purpose of improving their security against cyber-attacks and safeguarding the privacy of city dwellers.
... Several surveys discuss the security challenges posed to IoT-enabled smart assets in a smart city context [7]. The literature survey has been carried out considering security and asset representation aspects, i.e., representation and authentication mechanism for admin/owner, users, and IoT assets in a distributed IoT architecture for the smart city. ...
... Several surveys discuss the security challenges posed to IoT-enabled smart assets in a smart city context [7]. The literature survey has been carried out considering security and asset representation aspects, i.e., representation and authentication mechanism for admin/owner, users, and IoT assets in a distributed IoT architecture for the smart city. ...
... Several surveys discuss the security challenges posed to IoT-enabled smart assets in a smart city context [7]. The literature survey has been carried out considering security and asset representation aspects, i.e., representation and authentication mechanism for admin/owner, users, and IoT assets in a distributed IoT architecture for the smart city. ...
Smart city architecture brings all the underlying architectures, i.e., Internet of Things (IoT), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs), Internet of Cyber-Physical Things (IoCPT), and Internet of Everything (IoE), together to work as a system under its umbrella. The goal of smart city architecture is to come up with a solution that may integrate all the real-time response applications. However, the cyber-physical space poses threats that can jeopardize the working of a smart city where all the data belonging to people, systems, and processes will be at risk. Various architectures based on centralized and distributed mechanisms support smart cities; however, the security concerns regarding traceability, scalability, security services, platform assistance, and resource management persist. In this paper, private blockchain-based architecture Decentralized Smart City of Things (DSCoT) is proposed. It actively utilizes fog computing for all the users and smart devices connected to a fog node in a particular management system in a smart city, i.e., a smart house or hospital, etc. Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) have been utilized for representation to define smart device attributes. NFTs in the proposed DSCoT architecture provide devices and user authentication (IoT) functionality. DSCoT has been designed to provide a smart city solution that ensures robust security features such as Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability (CIA), and authorization by defining new attributes and functions for Owner, User, Fog, and IoT devices authentication. The evaluation of the proposed functions and components in terms of Gas consumption and time complexity has shown promising results. Comparatively, the Gas consumption for minting DSCoT NFT showed approximately 27%, and a DSCoT approve() was approximately 11% more efficient than the PUF-based NFT solution.
