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Birth weight, birth length and head circumference of babies born to 224 nonpre-eclamptic Caucasian women a in Boston USA (1994-1995) after gestation lasting from 37 to 42 weeks, inclusive, according to maternal characteristics
Source publication
Maternal weight gain has been consistently linked to birth weight but, beyond maternal energy intake, no macronutrient has been associated with either of them. We have examined whether maternal energy-adjusted intake of macronutrients is associated with either maternal weight gain or birth-size parameters.
Cohort study.
University hospital in Bosto...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... all women, gestational age at delivery was estimated as the exact difference between the first day of last menstruation and the date of delivery. Table 1 shows birth weight, length and head circumference according to maternal characteristics and gender of off- spring. Maternal characteristics were evaluated as possible confounders of the association of energy and energy- generating nutrients with birth-size characteristics. ...
Context 2
... Table 3, the association of maternal intake of energy and energy-generating nutrients with birth-size parameters is examined. After adjustment for the possible confounders indicated in Table 1, neither energy intake nor intake of any of the energy-generating nutrients (after adjustment for energy intake) was associated with any of the birth-size parameters examined. ...
Context 3
... Table 4, complete data for 207 pairs of mothers and newborn were available, but their distributions by the variables indicated in Table 1 were similar to the distribu- tions given in Table 1. Again, pregnant women were distributed in quartiles by intakes, alternatively, of energy, animal lipids, vegetable lipids, carbohydrates and protein. ...
Context 4
... Table 4, complete data for 207 pairs of mothers and newborn were available, but their distributions by the variables indicated in Table 1 were similar to the distribu- tions given in Table 1. Again, pregnant women were distributed in quartiles by intakes, alternatively, of energy, animal lipids, vegetable lipids, carbohydrates and protein. ...
Context 5
... regression-derived P-values for trend by quartile groups were obtained. With the exception of carbohydrates, significant positive associations with weight gain were evident, but the possibility of confounding, either mutual among the nutritional factors or by the nonnutri- tional factors indicated in Table 1, cannot be excluded. Table 5 shows the association of maternal intake of energy and energy-generating nutrients with maternal weight gain. ...
Citations
... Maternal weight during pregnancy is considered a good predictor of birth by several scholars [21,31,12,13,32,14]. Most of these studies detected a strong relationship between birth weight and the nutritional status of mothers, as measured by anthropometry. ...
Objectives
To determine the longitudinal growth and weight of tribal infants in Northeast India and compare their growth with CDC/NCHS growth standards.
Materials and methods
Basic data were obtained for 219 infant (114 boys and 105 girls) and maternal pairs belonging to the Paite ethnic group of Manipur, Northeast India. The data for the present study were collected from November 2010 to February 2012 from hospitals and maternity clinics. The required formal consent was obtained from mothers who were willing to participate in the study as well as from the authorities of the hospitals and maternity clinics. The ethical issues of concern were considered, and the study was approved by the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. The mothers included in the study were those who achieved full- term pregnancy. Maternal weights were measured after admission to the hospital before delivery. The newborns were measured within 24 hours of birth. All the measurements were handled independently by the researcher. Thereafter, each infant was measured at monthly intervals up to the age of 12 months, with strict adherence to ± 3 days at each age, by paying house visits.
Results
The mean weights of the babies at birth were 3.14 kg (girls) and 3.24 kg (boys), and at the 12th month, the mean birth weights for girls and boys were 9.40 kg and 9.94 kg, respectively. The mean weights of boys were significantly greater than those of girls throughout the study period. The maximum increase in mean weight was observed from birth to 1 month in both sexes. A comparison of correlation values at birth and 12 months revealed a greater number of correlations between mothers’ and infants’ anthropometric measurements at birth than at 12 months of age. Compared with those of the CDC/NCHS, the weight growth of the Paite infants fared slightly below the international standards.
Conclusion
Body growth was much more rapid during the first 6 months than during the latter half of life. Furthermore, maternal weight gain in the 9th month of pregnancy had a strong and significant influence on the growth of infants throughout the first year of life. Since mother-infant pairs are extremely beautifully and naturally entwined, close monitoring of mothers during pregnancy can aid in the overall growth and development of a child throughout his or her entire life.
... We attempted to adjust for EI during pregnancy using maternal weight at baseline, weight gain, and change in MUAC from baseline to 36 wk pregnancy as proxy variables. Maternal weight gain and change in MUAC during pregnancy are associated with EI [26][27][28][29][30]. Furthermore, to assess if we were including a variable on the causal pathway between maternal AF exposure and birth size, we considered HIV status and MUAC gain rate. ...
Background:
Aflatoxin (AF) exposure is associated with child growth faltering in cross-sectional studies, with limited findings from longitudinal studies.
Objectives:
To evaluate the relationship between maternal AF B1-lysine adduct concentration, child AF B1-lysine adduct concentration, and child growth in the first 30 mo of life.
Methods:
AF B1-lysine adduct was measured in mother-child dyad plasma samples using isotope dilution mass spectrometry. Using linear regression, we assessed the relationship between AF B1-lysine adduct concentration and child weight, height, and head and mid-upper arm circumferences at 1 wk, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 mo of age.
Results:
In adjusted models, maternal prenatal AF B1-lysine adduct (pg/μL) was positively associated with newborn anthropometric outcomes; largest beta coefficients for associations between standardized values were for newborn weight-for-age z-score [β = 0.13; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.02, 0.24; P < 0.05 and β = 0.11; 95% CI: 0.00, 0.22; P < 0.05 for second and third trimester AF, respectively]. Child AF B1-lysine adduct (pg/μL) at 6 mo was negatively associated with head circumference-for-age z-score at 6, 18, 24, and 30 mo, with beta coefficients ranging from β = -0.15; 95% CI: -0.28, -0.02 to β = -0.17; 95% CI: -0.31, -0.03; P < 0.05); 18-mo AF was negatively associated with anthropometric outcomes at 18, 24, and 30 mo, most consistently with length-for-age z-score (β = -0.18; 95% CI: -0.32, -0.04, β = -0.21; 95% CI: -0.35, -0.07, β = -0.18; 95% CI: -0.32, -0.03 at 18, 24 and 30 mo, respectively).
Conclusions:
Child AF exposure was associated with impaired child growth, but maternal AF exposure was not. Exposure during infancy was linked to persistent deficit in head circumference, implying reduced brain size lasting beyond the age of 2 years. Exposure at 18 mo was linked to persistent linear growth deficit. Further research should elucidate mechanisms through which AF affects child growth.
... An additional three relevant full-texts were found by scanning the reference lists of the located articles. This left 17 articles [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33] for inclusion in this review ( Figure 1). ...
... Out of the 17 included studies, there were four (23.5%) studies from the United Kingdom [17][18][19]30], three (17.6%) studies from the United States [20,25,28], two (11.7%) studies from Japan [32,33], and one each (5.9%) from Australia [21], Tunisia [22], Jordan [23], New Zealand [24], Germany [26], Sri Lanka [27], Malawi [29], and Spain [31]. ...
... studies from Japan [32,33], and one each (5.9%) from Australia [21], Tunisia [22], Jordan [23], New Zealand [24], Germany [26], Sri Lanka [27], Malawi [29], and Spain [31]. Of the total, 13 studies (76.5%) utilized cohort designs [17][18][19][20][21][24][25][26][27][28]30,32,33], while the remaining studies followed cross-sectional [23,29] and case-control [22,31] designs (Table S1). ...
Glucose is a vital fuel for fetal growth, and carbohydrates are the primary source of glucose in the diet. The effects of carbohydrate intake during pregnancy on neonatal birth weight have not been fully investigated or systematically reviewed. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to collate the available evidence to determine whether carbohydrate intake during pregnancy impacts newborn birth weight. A literature search was performed from inception to March 2022 in Embase, Medline, and PsycInfo. Articles published in English were independently screened for the title and abstracts, and then for full texts. Out of 17 studies included, a significant relationship between the intake of maternal carbohydrate or its subcomponents and neonatal birth weight was reported in six studies. Of them, one study reported that higher carbohydrate intake in early pregnancy was associated with lower birth weight. The two other studies reported a positive correlation between maternal carbohydrate intake and neonatal birth weight regarding first- and second-trimester intake. Maternal carbohydrate intake may have an impact on birth weight, as suggested by the included studies in this systematic review. However, the overall review indicates contradictory findings concerning the relationship between carbohydrate intake and neonatal birth weight. Studies assessing the type of carbohydrate and the amount consumed with improved methodological quality are recommended.
... In 2018, 43% of Iranian pregnant women had excessive GWG, defined based on the Institute of Medicine recommendations [7]. Maternal diet is a prominent modifiable risk factor for inappr opriate GWG [8,9]. A recent systematic review exploring the association of dietary intake with GWG suggested that energy intake and macronutrient composition of the diet may be associated with the magnitude of weight gain during pregnancy [10]. ...
Background/objectives
Plant-based dietary patterns are becoming more popular worldwide. We aimed to examine the relationship between plant-based dietary patterns and the risk of inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) in Iranian pregnant women.
Methods
We prospectively followed 657 pregnant women in Iran. Adherence to the plant-based diet, represented by plant-based (PDI), healthy (hPDI) and unhealthy plant-based (uPDI) dietary indexes was evaluated by applying a 90-item food frequency questionnaire during the first trimester of pregnancy. Multivariable-adjusted Cox proportional-hazards regression model was used to compute hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) across quartiles of plant-based diet scores.
Results
Over 25,562 person-weeks of follow-up, we documented 106 and 294 participants with inadequate and excessive GWG, respectively. We found a strong inverse association between adherence to the PDI and inadequate GWG after adjustment for demographic and confounding variables. Women in the highest quartile of the PDI had 50% lower risk of inadequate GWG than those in the lowest quartile (adjusted HR: 0.50; 95%CI 0.29, 0.89; P = 0.02). No significant association was found between hPDI and uPDI and inadequate GWG. There was no association between PDI, hPDI, and uPDI and the risk of excessive GWG.
Conclusions
Greater adherence to a plant-based diet during the first trimester of pregnancy may be associated with a lower risk of inadequate GWG. This finding needs to be confirmed in larger cohort studies, considering other pregnancy outcomes such as birth weight and the potential changes across the trimester in terms of food types and quantity.
... Past studies examining the associations between diet quality assessed via HEI and gestational weight gain have been conflicting. Several studies that were limited to crosssectional data or small sample sizes [12,13,[25][26][27] found no link between diet quality and GWG. However, most of these studies did not examine the prospective association between diet quality and subsequent GWG. ...
Meeting the Institute of Medicine (IOM) gestational weight gain (GWG) guidelines is associated with a reduced risk of adverse perinatal outcomes. Overall diet quality comprehensively assesses dietary components and accounts for interactions between them. While GWG is influenced by maternal diet, its association with overall diet quality—measured by various dietary quality indices—is not well-defined. We prospectively estimated the relationship between four established dietary quality indices and the risk of GWG rate above (excessive) or below (inadequate) IOM guidelines in a multi-racial and ethnic cohort of 2914 pregnant people from the Pregnancy Environment and Lifestyle Study (2014–2019). We assessed diet quality using the Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI-2010), alternate Mediterranean Diet (aMED), Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), and Empirical Dietary Inflammatory Index (EDIP). Following the first trimester, 56% of the cohort had excessive GWG, and 14% had inadequate GWG. Poor diet quality (below the 75th percentile), measured by HEI-2010, was associated with a higher risk of excessive GWG in the second and third trimesters [RR = 1.03 (1.00, 1.06)]. Effect modification of this relationship by race and ethnicity and pre-pregnancy BMI was assessed. We found poor diet quality to be associated with elevated risk of excessive GWG among Black participants [RR = 1.14 (1.02, 1.28)] and White participants [RR 1.07 (1.01, 1.12)]. This was also the case for participants with pre-pregnancy BMI < 25.0 [RR 1.05 (1.00, 1.10)]. These results suggest that diet quality measured by the HEI-2010 is associated with excessive GWG, and the associations appear to be stronger among pregnant people without overweight or obesity and pregnant people who identify as Black or White race and ethnicity.
... However, the relationship between maternal energy intake and fetal growth is unclear. Some investigators [12][13][14] found no associations between energy intake and fetal growth and birth weight. However, they do document positive associations between GWG and maternal energy intake and birth weight. ...
... Notably, a significant portion of the association was mediated by GWG. Previous studies [12][13][14] have not investigated this relationship, and GWG may have obscured the associations between energy intake and fetal growth and birth weight in those studies. Moreover, the characteristics of participants and the method of handling energy intake values may partly explain the differences in findings between studies. ...
Background
Extra energy intake is commonly recommended for pregnant women to support fetal growth. However, relevant data regarding variations in energy intake and expenditure, body mass index and gestational weight gain (GWG) are frequently not considered. This study aimed to investigate how energy intake during pregnancy and gestational weight gain (GWG) are associated with birth weight.
Methods
Early pregnant women were recruited into a Japanese nationwide prospective birth cohort study between 2011 and 2014. We analysed data of 89,817 mother-child pairs of live-born non-anomalous singletons after excluding births before 28 weeks or after 42 weeks. Energy intake during pregnancy was estimated from self-administered food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) and was stratified into low, medium, and high. Participants completed the FFQ in mid-pregnancy (mean 27.9 weeks) by recalling food consumption at the beginning of pregnancy. Effects of energy intake on birth weight and mediation by GWG were estimated using the Karlson–Holm–Breen method; the method separates the impact of confounding in the comparison of conditional and unconditional parameter estimates in nonlinear probability models. Relative risks and risk differences for abnormal birth size were calculated.
Results
Mean daily energy intake, GWG, and birth weight were 1682.1 (533.6) kcal, 10.3 (4.0) kg, and 3032.3 (401.4) g, respectively. 6767 and 9010 women had small-for-gestational-age and large-for-gestational-age infants, respectively. Relative to low energy intake, moderate and high intakes increased adjusted birth weights by 13 g and 24 g, respectively: 58 and 69% of these effects, respectively, were mediated by GWG. Compared with the moderate energy intake group, the low energy intake group had seven more women per 1000 women with a small-for-gestational-age birth, whereas the high energy intake group had eight more women per 1000 women with a large-for-gestational-age birth.
Conclusion
GWG mediates the effect of energy intake on birth weight. All pregnant women should be given adequate nutritional guidance for optimal GWG and fetal growth.
... Despite the lack of significant association between UPF-rich diets consumption and excessive GWG, evidence indicates that GWG is significantly correlated with maternal energy intake [102][103][104]. A recent systematic review reported that dietary patterns with ultra-processed components rich in fat and sugars presented an association with higher GWG [89]. ...
The consumption of ultra-processed food (UPF)-rich diets represents a potential threat to human health. Considering maternal diet adequacy during pregnancy is a major determinant for perinatal health outcomes, this study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze studies investigating the association between maternal consumption of a UPF-rich diet and perinatal outcomes. Conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, five electronic databases and gray literature using Google Scholar and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global were searched up to 31 May 2022. No restrictions were applied on language and publication date. Two reviewers independently conducted the study selection and data extraction process. Meta-analysis was conducted according to the random-effects model. In total, 61 studies were included in the systematic review and the overall population comprised 698,803 women from all gestational trimesters. Meta-analysis of cohort studies showed that maternal consumption of UPF-rich diets was associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (odds ratio (OR): 1.48; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.17, 1.87) and preeclampsia (OR: 1.28; 95% CI: 1.15, 1.42). Neonatal outcomes showed no association. The overall GRADE quality of the evidence for the associations was very low. The findings highlight the need to monitor and reduce UPF consumption, specifically during the gestational period, as a strategy to prevent adverse perinatal outcomes.
... However, findings from human observational studies on the effect of dietary protein intake during pregnancy on birth weight are inconsistent. Some studies showed a positive association between maternal protein intake and birth weight [4][5][6][7], while other studies reported no significant association [8][9][10][11], an inverse association [12][13][14], or even an inverse U-curve association [15]. To our knowledge, evidence on the independent effect of dietary protein intake during pregnancy on birth weight is scare in China, where maternal diets during pregnancy are typically monotonous and predominantly plant-based with little consumption of animal-based foods, especially in Northwest China [16,17]. ...
... Previous human studies on dietary protein intake during pregnancy and fetal growth have generally focused on total protein, and the results were not consistent [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Similar to the present study, several studies in Spain [4], Australia [5], and the UK [6,7] showed a positive association between maternal protein intake and birth weight, while other studies found no significant association [8][9][10][11], an inverse association [12][13][14], or even an inverse U-curve association [15]. ...
... Previous human studies on dietary protein intake during pregnancy and fetal growth have generally focused on total protein, and the results were not consistent [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Similar to the present study, several studies in Spain [4], Australia [5], and the UK [6,7] showed a positive association between maternal protein intake and birth weight, while other studies found no significant association [8][9][10][11], an inverse association [12][13][14], or even an inverse U-curve association [15]. The inconsistency may be partly due to the differences in study designs, dietary assessment methods, and population characteristics such as dietary habits and genetic backgrounds. ...
Background
Previous studies have yielded inconsistent results on the association between maternal dietary protein intake and birth weight. Moreover, little is known about the effects of dietary protein intake from different sources on fetal growth. This study aimed to investigate the associations of different dietary protein sources (total protein, animal protein, plant protein, and major dietary protein sources) during pregnancy with birth weight and the related adverse birth outcomes.
Methods
7310 women were recruited using a stratified multistage random sampling method at 0–12 months (median: 3; 10–90th percentile: 0–7) after delivery in Shaanxi, China. Maternal diets were gathered by a validated FFQ and other characteristics were collected by a standard questionnaire. Multilevel linear or logistic regression models were used to estimate birth weight changes or ORs (95% CIs) for adverse birth outcomes associated with different dietary protein sources during pregnancy.
Results
The mean percentage of energy from total protein was 11.4% (SD 2.2), with only 27.4% of total protein derived from animal protein. Per 3% increase in energy from total protein, animal protein, and dairy protein was associated with birth weight increases of 19.4 g (95% CI 6.0–32.9), 20.6 g (4.8–36.5), and 18.2 g (4.7–31.7), respectively. Per 3% increase in energy from total protein, animal protein, and dairy protein was also associated with lower risks of low birth weight (LBW) (total protein: OR = 0.78, 95% CI 0.64–0.94; animal protein: 0.79, 0.65–0.96; dairy protein: 0.71, 0.56–0.91), small for gestational age (SGA) (total protein: 0.88, 0.79–0.98; animal protein: 0.87, 0.78–0.97; dairy protein: 0.81, 0.68–0.96), and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) (total protein: 0.84, 0.72–0.98; animal protein: 0.86, 0.75–0.98; dairy protein: 0.78, 0.66–0.92). We observed no associations of plant protein and other major dietary protein sources with birth weight and the above birth outcomes. The results did not change when maternal protein was substituted for fat or carbohydrate.
Conclusions
Among Chinese pregnant women with low intake of protein, higher intake of dietary protein, in particular animal protein and dairy protein, is associated with higher birth weight and lower risks of LBW, SGA, and IUGR.
... Tab. 2; [24][25][26][27][28]). Bei einer zu geringen Gewichtszunahme und somit einer nutritiven Unterversorgung der Mutter sind ein geringeres Geburtsgewicht sowie epigenetische Veränderungen und ein erhöhtes Diabetesrisiko im Erwachsenenalter beschrieben worden [29,30]. ...
Zusammenfassung
Eine Frau erfährt durch eine Schwangerschaft diverse physiologische und metabolische Veränderungen, um den Fetus zu ernähren und sich selbst auf die Geburt vorzubereiten. Dafür müssen ausreichend Energie und Nährstoffe bereitgestellt werden, wofür eine gesunde und ausgewogene Ernährung der werdenden Mutter beste Voraussetzungen schafft. Der zusätzliche Energiebedarf während einer Schwangerschaft wird jedoch von vielen überschätzt. Dieser steigt erst im zweiten Trimenon um etwa 250 Kilokalorien (kcal)/Tag (d) und im dritten Trimenon um weitere 250 kcal/Tag an. Eine überhöhte Energiezufuhr bedingt eine positive Energiebilanz, die eine überdurchschnittliche Gewichtszunahme mit damit verbundenen Risiken und Komplikationen nach sich ziehen kann. Die Ernährungsempfehlungen für Schwangere orientieren sich an den allgemeinen Empfehlungen für Erwachsene, wobei kalorienfreie Getränke und pflanzliche Nahrungsmittel reichlich und tierische Lebensmittel dagegen mäßig konsumiert werden sollten. Auch auf eine ausreichende Zufuhr von Ballaststoffen sollte geachtet werden. Sehr sparsam sollten Süßigkeiten, zuckerhaltige Getränke, verarbeitete Snacks und Nahrungsmittel mit einem hohen Anteil an gesättigten Fettsäuren gegessen werden. Der Bedarf an Kohlenhydraten ändert sich durch eine Schwangerschaft grundsätzlich nicht. Ihr Anteil sollte bei etwa 50–55 % der täglichen Energiezufuhr liegen, wobei die Aufnahme von freiem Zucker limitiert werden sollte. Der Anteil der Fette sollte etwa 30 % einnehmen, wobei eine ausreichende Zufuhr von ungesättigten bzw. essenziellen Fettsäuren zu gewährleisten ist. Ansonsten sind fetale Entwicklungsstörungen und das Auftreten von Schwangerschaftskomplikationen möglich. Eine Supplementierung von ω‑3-Fettsäuren ist in Einzelfällen in Erwägung zu ziehen, jedoch nicht generell zu empfehlen. Der Proteinbedarf steigt während der Schwangerschaft ab dem 4. Schwangerschaftsmonat an. Es wurde für das zweite Trimenon ein Anstieg von 15 % und für das dritte Trimenon ein Anstieg von 25 % beschrieben. Die Proteinzufuhr sollte jedoch auf einem moderaten Niveau bleiben und 25 % der gesamten täglichen Energiezufuhr nicht übersteigen. Eine mit Bedacht ausgewählte, ausgewogene und nährstoffreiche Ernährung bereits vor und auch während der Schwangerschaft kann den Verlauf und die fetale Entwicklung positiv beeinflussen. Darüber hinaus können dadurch die Gesundheit, das Wohlbefinden der werdenden Mutter sowie die Entwicklung des Kindes bis ins Erwachsenenalter gefördert werden.
... 5,6 Negative nutritional balance during pregnancy may increase the risk of several adverse birth outcomes including preterm birth, low birth weight, and intrauterine growth restriction, particularly in populations that experience adverse socioeconomic conditions. 7 Furthermore, nutritional excesses may increase the risk for excessive maternal weight gain [8][9][10] which, in turn, has been associated with several adverse neonatal outcomes including low Apgar score, hypoglycemia, polycythemia, meconium aspiration syndrome, and large-for-gestational age. 11,12 Studies in several countries and socioeconomic backgrounds have shown that women with higher income and education levels tend to have a healthy dietary pattern, which comprises of the intake of green leafy vegetables, legumes, fruits, milk and dairy products, red meat, and chicken. ...
Background
Socioeconomic factors influence diet quality during pregnancy. However, dearth of evidence about the influence on energy and macronutrients adequacy calls for research.
Objective
To analyze the association between socioeconomic factors and adequacy rates of energy and macronutrients intakes in pregnant women from Merida, Yucatan, Mexico.
Methods
During September to December 2019, we applied a socioeconomic questionnaire and three 24-hour dietary recalls to 83 pregnant females resident in Merida, Yucatan. Energy and macronutrient intakes were compared with the estimated trimester-specific energy and macronutrient requirements to calculate adequacies (%). Outcome variables were average adequacy of energy, carbohydrates, total fat, and protein intakes and the main predictors were maternal education, monthly family income, working status, and marital status. Descriptive statistics of adequacy were calculated for each category of predictors. The association between socioeconomic factors and outcome variables was analyzed through simple and multiple linear regression models.
Results
Adequacy rates of energy and macronutrients decreased as education and familial income levels increased, as well as among unemployed women. Consistently with these results, simple linear regressions showed that years of education, family income, and working status (i.e., women working to earn money), were negatively associated with adequacy rates of energy and macronutrients intakes. When all predictors and covariates were included in a multiple linear regression model, only having a job was significantly associated with adequacy rates. Marital status was not associated with outcomes.
Conclusions
Women in disadvantaged socioeconomic conditions (unemployed and low levels of education and familial income) show greater energy and macronutrient intakes.
