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Periodization represents an optimal modality for organizing training programs in athletes, recreational and rehabilitative practitioners. The selected procedure, however, should be based on the athlete's age, level of performance, specific goals or competition characteristics. A common theme throughout all periodization paradigms is the requirement...
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... manipulation of all training variables should be considered at all levels within the training process (workout, day by day, microcycle, mesocycle and macrocycle, year and multi-year training plan). Variation should never be excessive or randomly applied rather it has to be introduced considering the interrelation and sequencing of each training variable (Haff, 2013). The periodization approach is based on breaking the training plan into specific interrelated periods of time which are structured to meet specific goals (Haff, 2013). This procedure provides the opportunity for a systematic, organized method to all training in terms of several basic structural units, namely the training sessions which are the fundamental unit, the microcycles, mesocycles and macrocycles (figure 1). In addition to this, there are more extended cycles such as Olympic or quadrennial cycles that consider long time preparation for athletes (Siff, 2004). Depending on the sports and athletes characteristics, there are several variants for developing annual training plans. In general, the number of competitive period serves as a foundation to determine the number of macrocycles within an annual training plan. The Macrocycle is generally referred to a single competitive season. One macrocycle involves a number of mesocycles that in addition can be assigned to specific period or phases: Preparatory (general and specific), competitive and transition (Bompa & Haff, 2009). In some cases as in the Olympic ...
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... 48 For each training session, a specific goal will be defined, depending on the periodization and planning. 49 This specific goal can be focused on more kinematic (i.e. technical), physiological, and/or strategical (i.e. ...
Swim coaches routinely monitor the performance and performance determining variables of their athletes to optimize training programs in an individual-specific manner with the ultimate aim to swim faster and win races. To interpret the collected data, they require a suitable, and practically useful, conceptual framework, which can be found in the power balance of swimming. For coaches a heuristic model for training and performance optimization based on the power balance has been proposed. We build on this model and illustrate how it can be employed in the training practice using data of an exemplary sub-elite swimmer (700 FINA points), which was collected continuously during two training sessions. Variables that are used in daily swim training practice, such as heart rate (HR), stroke count (SC), stroke rate (SR), and lap time (LT), were measured. By combining external load variables (e.g. LT) and internal load variables (e.g. HR) with technical variables (e.g. SR), the degree to which the swimmer complies with the training program can be determined. The measured values of these variables are presented using a traffic light feedback system indicating the degree of compliance. The traffic light system enables coaches to adjust the program if deemed necessary. It is thus shown how the model and commonly measured variables can assist swim coaches in the design and evaluation of training sessions in their pursuit of personal performance improvement leading to greater athletic success.
... Periodisation is a strategy to plan and organise the training season into three types of periodic time units: macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle (Naclerio Ayllón et al., 2013). These units serve to optimise the athletes' development at specific times. ...
Training to run is not straightforward since without proper personalised supervision and planning, people will not improve their performance and will increase the risk of injuries. This study aims to identify the different factors that influence running training programmes, examining the benefits, challenges or limitations of personalised plans. Moreover, this study explores how multimodal, immersive and artificial intelligence technologies can support personalised training. We conducted an exploratory sequential mixed research consisting of interviews with 11 running coaches from different countries and a survey of 12 running coaches. Based on the interviews and survey analysis, we identified and extracted relevant factors of the training process. We identified four relevant aspects for running training: physical, technical, mental and body awareness. Using these aspects as a reference, we derived a framework using a bottom‐up approach. This framework proposes multimodal, immersive and artificial intelligence technologies to facilitate personalised running training. It also allows coaches to personally guide their athletes on each aspect.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Running is a popular sport that provides health benefits and is practised by many people around the world.
Training is a process that enables athletes to improve their development in various aspects of their sport; in the case of running, it helps them to increase their speed and endurance.
Personalised training supports the needs and abilities of athletes, by helping them to achieve their potential through individualised activities or programmes.
Sports science research indicates that personalised training can be improved by applying technology to tackle its challenges and limitations.
What this paper adds We show that personalising the training requires not only focusing on the runners' physical condition but also on their mental, technical and body awareness aspects, where each of them has a different adaptation to training.
We show that multimodal and immersive technologies offer suitable and portable ways to measure and target the mental and body awareness aspects during running training.
Implications for practice and/or policy This paper presents a list of factors, measures and devices that coaches can use to plan and design their training sessions in a more personalised manner.
This study can serve as a foundation for future research that aims to identify and target the various factors that influence the learning and training of sports.
... Structured physical training is based upon the principles of progressive overload and adaptation, whereby an increasing training stimulus is applied over time to elicit physiological adaptations and improvements in performance [3]. Training load-comprised of training volume, intensity, and frequency-must be manipulated appropriately over microcycles (weeks), mesocycles (months), and macrocycles (seasons) to maintain or improve physiological capabilities [26]. Planning recovery within and across these cycles is necessary and should consider the characteristics of individual training sessions (e.g., metabolic demand), individual variations in the recovery process, and desired physical adaptations [26]. ...
... Training load-comprised of training volume, intensity, and frequency-must be manipulated appropriately over microcycles (weeks), mesocycles (months), and macrocycles (seasons) to maintain or improve physiological capabilities [26]. Planning recovery within and across these cycles is necessary and should consider the characteristics of individual training sessions (e.g., metabolic demand), individual variations in the recovery process, and desired physical adaptations [26]. Time away from the sport/training environment, rest, social recovery, and downtime are all important factors that need to be considered in the overall periodised plan. ...
The sport and athletic performance industry has seen a plethora of new recovery devices and technologies over recent years, and it has become somewhat difficult for athletes, coaches, and practitioners to navigate the efficacy of such devices or whether they are even required at all. With the increase in recovery devices and tools, it has also become commonplace for athletes to overlook more traditional, well-established recovery strategies. In this narrative review, we discuss recovery strategies in relation to the hierarchy of scientific evidence, classifying them based on the strength of the evidence, ranging from meta-analyses through to case studies and reports. We report that foam rolling, compression garments, cryotherapy, photobiomodulation, hydrotherapy, and active recovery have a high level of positive evidence for improved recovery outcomes, while sauna, recovery boots/sleeves, occlusion cuffs, and massage guns currently have a lower level of evidence and mixed results for their efficacy. Finally, we provide guidance for practitioners when deciding on recovery strategies to use with athletes during different phases of the season.
... The gradual increase in frequency, intensity, time and type of exercise is related to the exercise periodization (Evans, 2019). Periodization aims to control and maintain optimal training stimulus, adjust individual variability, minimize the risk of health problems, cardiac complications, and overtraining, and reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injury (Kasper, 2019;Naclerio et al., 2013), also helps patients not to get bored in undergoing an exercise program (Clemente-Suárez et al., 2021). In coaching, periodization is often implemented using micro cycles, mesocycles, and macrocycles (training cycles with modified intensity and increasing duration), with the type of periodization divided into; linear periodization, block periodization and reverse periodization, which adapts to the athlete and the competition. ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC, stated that obesity prevalence increased by 52%. In Indonesia, the prevalence of obesity is 21.8%. Obesity triggers an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines, which induces chronic inflammation both locally and systemically, which can cause health problems, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, metabolite syndrome, and an increased risk of infection. One of the components of obesity management is increasing physical activity. One of the domains of physical activity is exercise. Exercise with the appropriate frequency, duration, intensity, type, and periodization can influence cytokine modulation so that it can reduce systemic inflammation and increase physical fitness. This evidence-based case report (EBCR) aims to determine the type of exercise periodization in obesity management and its effect on health-related fitness. The process of searching for literature on EBCR uses the PRISMA method on 3 databases, namely: PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ProQuest. From the search results, it was found that the combination of endurance and strength training exercises with linear periodization 3 times a week, was found to be better in improving fitness in obese people. Linear periodization increases cardiopulmonary fitness with a relative mean difference of 17.8(0.3 to 35.3) %, maximal strength with 1 RM bench press and 1 RM leg press test also increased, and also reduce body fat percentage about 2.1(-4.8 to 0.5) %. Thus, the combination of strength and cardiorespiratory exercise with linear periodization gives a positive response to the components of health-related fitness in obese people.
... Preparation for soccer is often characterized by periodization schemes that target technical, tactical, and physical development throughout the year to meet competition demands and mitigate injury risks [1][2][3]. This process involves strategic manipulation of training variables (i.e., volume, intensity, frequency, density) at key time points to elicit sport-specific adaptations [1,4]. ...
The purpose was to examine relationships between external loads (ELs), perceived exertion, and soreness. Collegiate men soccer players (n = 19) were monitored for 72 sessions (training: n = 53; matches: n = 19). Likert scale assessments (0–6) of lower body soreness were collected prior to each session, and ELs were collected using positional monitoring technology. Session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE-load) was calculated by multiplying perceived exertion values (Borg CR-10 Scale) by respective session duration to determine internal load. Multiple analyses of variance were used to determine differences in ELs across seasons (pre-season, in-season, post-season) and sessions (training, match). Bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression analyses were used to evaluate relationships among soreness, ELs, and sRPE-load. Greatest ELs were observed during pre-season and post-season phases (p < 0.001). Sessions with high perceived exertion and low soreness were associated with higher ELs (p < 0.05). Duration (t = 16.13), total distance (t = 9.17), sprint distance (t = 7.54), player load (t = 4.22), top speed (t = 4.69), and acceleration (t = 2.02) positively predicted sRPE-load (F = 412.9, p < 0.001, R² = 0.75). Soreness was weakly and trivially correlated with ELs (p < 0.05). The very strong relationship between ELs and sRPE-load highlights the utility of sRPE-load as a practical means to estimate workload; however, more research into the relationship between soreness and workload is warranted.
... Periodization refers to methodical planning and structuring of training process conducted over logical and systematic sequencing of the training variables (intensity, volume, rest periods, frequency, exercises selections, and type of resistance) in an integrative fashion aimed to optimize specific performance outcomes at predetermined time points [118], while minimizing potential for overtraining [119]. Periodized RT plans are proposed to be superior to nonperiodized training programs for enhancing RT outcomes [120] mainly when conducted for long period of time [119]. ...
... Based on the level of performance, sports discipline, individual needs, and stages of athletic preparation, several periodization strategies have been proposed. In competitive sports, the length and numbers of competitive period serve as a foundation to determine the basic structure of the annual plan [118]. An annual training plan, consisting of a hierarchy of time periods or phases, is coherently connected. ...
... The role of periodization to maximize RT outcomes still need to be better analyzed using more realistic scenarios commonly observed during the athletic preparation. Indeed, athletic training integrates different activities not only for increasing strength or gain muscle mass, but also for improving performance within a more complex sport scenario [118]. For instance, some well-designed interventions, conducted in laboratories, where the impact of RT is assessed under a controlled environment with no integration with other activities and circumstances, might not be the best training scheme to compare periodized vs non periodized strategies. ...
Resistance training (RT) configures a specialized method of training that involves the progressive use of a wide range of resistive loads, different rate of muscle activation or movement velocities, and a variety of training modalities. RT is currently considered essential in athletic preparation. It is a key component for optimizing growth and maturation in children, promoting health and quality of life in the elderly, or to attenuate the incidence of injuries in physically active populations. Qualified professionals are necessary to design individualized RT programs for athletes from varying disciplines with very specific performance outcomes. The professional must consider specific needs for all ages, not only the athletic population, making the necessary adaptation to meet their level of ability and desired outcomes. Effective training stimuli should help increase performance and avoid overtraining. This is accomplished by manipulating physiological, neurological, and biomechanical-related variables. There is hard science behind the importance of menstrual cycle-based periodization, and—although research in this area is scarce—results suggest that designing training programs integrating the menstrual cycle hormonal fluctuation or the ingestion of triphasic contraceptives might be of relevance to optimize performance in premenopausal women.
... Un microciclo está constituido por una serie de jornadas de entrenamiento, organizada de forma racional en un corto periodo de tiempo. Posiblemente debido a los hábitos laborales y culturales de la mayoría de la población, convencionalmente se toma una duración de una semana calendario (Naclerio, F. et al., 2013;García Manso, J.M., y col., 1996); especialmente en el fitness, el deporte recreativo, y hasta en el de mediano rendimiento. ...
... Pueden aprovecharse para enseñar nuevas habilidades técnicas, corregir errores, introducir nuevos métodos de entrenamiento, y hasta como un "barómetro" del proceso, para constatar si lo que se ha propuesto a nivel teórico, realmente se ajusta a la individualidad del sujeto (Naclerio, F., et al., 2013). ...
... Se caracterizan por presentar bajos niveles de magnitud de carga García Manso, J.M., y col., 1996); y en general duran entre 5 y 7 días (Naclerio, F. et al., 2013). ...
En este libro,bajo un enfoque critico revisionista, se abordan temas relacinados con la planificacion y los componentes de la magnitud de la carga del entrenamiento para el fitness y el deporte de rendimiento.
Se proponen guias generales para el entrenamiento de la fuerza; la velocidad, rapidez y agilidad; la resistencia; la movilidad; y la estabilidad.
... The presence of more than two competitive periods in 1 year configures a multiple periodization. 60 The option of the coaches responsible for planning ZY's season was to maintain this structure, even with the limited availability of competitions. It was possible to keep the periods short and to guarantee frequent alternation of training means, which can be more adequate for the development of experienced specialists in power events. ...
The People's Republic of China obtained at the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games its best historical performance in the triple jump, thereby winning the silver medal. The objective of this case study was to present how evidence-based knowledge was applied to improve selected factors that may have contributed to this result. The factors included running speed, strength, muscle power, jumping technique, body composition, mental preparation, training organization, and recovery. Short training blocks, monitoring of training sessions and athlete's status, individualized tapering, use of activation sessions the day before competition, and postactivation performance enhancement strategies used in training and at the event were concepts followed during the preparation to the Games. Improved performance in field tests and power training was accompanied by positive changes in approach speed, run-up accuracy, and jumping technique, which, together with mental preparation, enabled two personal records to be set in the Olympic final. The results in the field tests were among the best ever reported and could constitute a benchmark for world-class triple jumpers.
... Still, competition time is short, such as in the event Olympic Games or World Cup. It is found less suitable for team sports such as football, basket and rugby, where competition time may take longer (Nacleiro, Moody & Chapman, 2013) competition time of professional football takes place for some nine months (Walker & Hawkins, 2017). ...
The football competition period lasts 6-9 months on an annual training program. Long competitions certainly result in physical and mental fatigue in athletes. In the theory of training periodization, a period of rest after the end of the competition (transition period) gives athletes the opportunity to rest and psychic relaxation while maintaining optimal physical condition. This paper seeks to review the literature relevant to the concepts and practices in the transition period. Discussion covers two main things: the facts that occur during the transition period and exercises that athletes need to do during the transition period. The results of this discussion aim to make athletes and coaches understand the things that occur during the transition period and what exercise practices, such as what athletes need to do to prevent the potential detraining syndrome. So that in the preparation period of the new season, the athlete's performance level is in good condition.
... Other studies have adopted a different approach, monitoring, and assessing the impact of different training methods on basketball players' physical fitness, the impact of physical fitness on the execution of technical and tactical abilities, or the significance of injuries throughout a sports season at an individual and team level. For instance, Naclerio et al. (2013b) observed that high volume resistance training (three sets per exercise and nine sets per muscle group) was the best approach to increase strength in college team sport athletes with no previous resistance training experience during preseason, while low volume (one set per exercise and three sets per muscle group) seemed to be an interesting in-season strategy for maintaining strength and enhancing lower-body average power. The effects of these different programs were assessed via one repetition maximum (1 RM) and maximal average power (AP) on the bench press, upright row, and squat exercises using progressive tests. ...
... During the analyzed period, tests were conducted during the training sessions and were non-invasive (Bangsbo et al., 2006) using the main exercises of each program. They were performed during introductory microcycles (Naclerio et al., 2013b), and depending on the strength program and seasonal periodization, the test exercises were: single leg press (LP) (Cuadrado Sáenz et al., 2009) for the eccentric (ECC) and resistance (RES) programs and double-leg squat (SQ) (Caparrós et al., 2014) and jerk (JK) (Andújar Gutiérrez et al., 2015) for the functional (FUNC). Tests were carried out during the morning sessions after a full rest day, beginning with a warm-up consisting of 8 min of submaximal general physical activity, lumbopelvic analytic protocol, and joint mobility. ...
... The tools used for this program were strength machines, own bodyweight, medicine ball and weight balls, and resistance bands and mini bands. Finally, those who had chronic joint injuries or were older were assigned to the Resistance (RES) program, oriented to specific muscle groups (Naclerio et al., 2013b). Tools used for this program were weight machines, own body weight, and resistance bands and mini bands. ...
This study aims to determine possible associations between strength parameters, injury rates, and performance outcomes over six seasons in professional basketball settings. Thirty-six male professional basketball players [mean ± standard deviation (SD): age, 30.5 ± 4.7 years; height, 199.5 ± 9.5 cm; body mass, 97.9 ± 12.9 kg; BMI 24.6 ± 2.5 kg/m²] participated in this retrospective observational study, conducted from the 2008–09 to the 2013–14 season. According to their epidemiological records, each player followed an individual plan designed within different strength training programs: Functional (n = 16), Eccentric (n = 8), or Resistance (n = 12). Seven hundred and fourteen valid records were obtained from 170 individual strength tests during 31 sessions. Tests performed were leg press, squat, and jerk. Parameters recorded were force, power, velocity, peak velocity, and time to peak velocity for strength; time loss injury and muscle injury for injury rate; and games won, games lost, and championships for performance outcomes. All the strength variables and injuries are independent of the strength programs (p < 0.01). The correlation analysis showed very significant relationships between muscular injuries and time to peak velocity (r = 0.94; p < 0.01), significant relationships between force and games lost (r = 0.85; p < 0.05), and muscular injuries with games lost (r = –0.81; p < 0.05) per season. Mean values per season described a possible association of force, time to peak velocity, and muscular injuries with performance outcomes (R² = 0.96; p < 0.05). In this specific context, strength variables and injury rate data show no association with a single type of strength training program in this cohort of high-performance basketball players.
