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Bargraphs representing the results of the pitch memory recognition task. A mixed factorial ANOVA with the factors time (pre vs. poststimulation), group (nonmusicians vs. musicians) and stimulation group (cathodal left SMG vs. cathodal right SMG vs. sham) reveals a signi fi cant time × group × stimulation group interaction, F 2,66 = 4.73, P = 0.012. In nonmusicians, cathodal tDCS over the left SMG leads to a signi fi cant deterioration of pitch recognition ( t (11) = 3.67, P = 0.008), while in musicians cathodal tDCS over the right SMG results in declined performance ( t (11) = 2.76, P = 0.02).
Source publication
For music and language processing, memory for relative pitches is highly important. Functional imaging studies have shown
activation of a complex neural system for pitch memory. One region that has been shown to be causally involved in the process
for nonmusicians is the supramarginal gyrus (SMG). The present study aims at replicating this finding...
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Context 1
... participants completed the pitch span task twice (in the preliminary session and after tDCS) a mixed factorial analysis of var- iance (ANOVA) with time (pre vs. poststimulation) as a within subject factor and group (nonmusicians vs. musicians) and stimulation group (cathodal left SMG vs. cathodal right SMG vs. sham) as between subject factors was conducted. The analysis revealed a trend for the factor time , F 1,66 = 3.67, P = 0.06, and a nonsigni fi cant result for factor stimulation group , F 2,66 = 1.18, P = 0.32, whereas the main effect of factor group was signi fi cant, F 1,66 = 31.21, P < 0.001. The interactions time × group , time × stimulation group and group × stimulation group are all nonsigni fi cant ( P > 0.14) but the time × group × stimulation group interaction yielded a signi fi cant result, F 2,66 = 4.73, P = 0.012. Data are summarized in Table 2. In order to explore the signi fi cant time × group × stimulation group interaction, 2 univariate ANOVAs were applied, one for the prestimulation and one for the poststimulation phase. Where appropriate, all post hoc tests were subject to sequential Bonferroni correction (Holm 1979) in order to compensate for multiple tests and to protect type I errors. Therefore, for every post hoc set P -values were ranked and the smallest P -value was tested with a Bonferroni correction including all tests, the second smallest was tested involving one less test and so forth for the remaining tests. Before stimulation a signi fi cant main effect of group , F 1,66 = 24.16, P < 0.001 was revealed. The main effect of stimulation group as well as the group × stimulation group interaction were nonsigni fi cant ( P -values > 0.92). Poststimulation, the ANOVA revealed a signi fi cant main effect of group , F 1,66 = 25.72, P < 0.001 and a signi fi cant group × stimulation group interaction, F 2,66 = 5.16, P = 0.016. The main effect of stimulation group was nonsigni fi cant ( P = 0.082). Furthermore, independent sample t -tests were applied in order to dissolve the signi fi cant group × stimulation group interaction of the poststimulation session. In the stimulation group receiving cathodal tDCS over the left SMG, a highly signi fi cant difference of the factor group was revealed, t (22) = 5.96, P < 0.001. In the stimulation group receiving cathodal tDCS over the right SMG, the result was nonsigni fi cant, t (22) = 0.88, P = 0.39, and in the sham group, a trend towards superior performance of the musicians compared with the performance of nonmusicians was present, t (22) = 2.32, P = 0.06. This series of results suggests that the musicians ’ superior performance in all stimulation groups before stimulation was not present anymore after stimulation only in the group who received cathodal tDCS over the right SMG. To explore this interesting fi nding, a pre- and poststimulation comparison in the musicians group receiving cathodal stimulation of the right SMG was applied and showed a signi fi cant result, t (11) = 2.76, P = 0.02 indicating that cathodal stimulation over the right SMG in musicians led to a deterioration of pitch memory performance. Additionally, in nonmusicians a pre- and poststimulation comparison in the group receiving cathodal tDCS over the left SMG revealed a signi fi cant deterioration of pitch memory, t (11) = 3.67, P = 0.008 (see Fig. 1). An ANOVA with factors group (nonmusicians vs. musicians) and stimulation group (cathodal left SMG vs. cathodal right SMG vs. sham) on overall recall performance scores yielded main effects of group , F 1,66 = 89.5, P < 0.001, and stimulation group , F 2,66 = 5.14, P = 0.008, and a signi fi cant group × stimulation group interaction, F 2,66 = 3.15, P = 0.049. Data are summarized in Table 2. Post hoc independent sample t -tests with sequential Bonferroni correction (Holm 1979) in nonmusicians showed signi fi cant differences between the group receiving cathodal stimulation over the left SMG and the groups receiving stimulation over the right SMG, t (22) = 3.04, P = 0.018, and sham stimulation, t (22) = 2.76, P = 0.024. The group with cathodal tDCS over the left SMG performed signi fi cantly below the sham group, and the group stimulated with cathodal tDCS over the right SMG (Fig. 2 A ). The difference between the groups receiving cathodal tDCS over the right SMG and sham stimulation was nonsigni fi cant, t (22) = 0.08, P = 0.93. For the musicians group, no signi fi cant differences in overall performance could be found in the 3 stimulation groups ( P > 0.55), indicating that cathodal stimulation over the left or right SMG did not affect task ...
Context 2
... 2.76, P = 0.02 indicating that cathodal stimulation over the right SMG in musicians led to a deterio- ration of pitch memory performance. Additionally, in nonmu- sicians a pre-and poststimulation comparison in the group receiving cathodal tDCS over the left SMG revealed a signifi- cant deterioration of pitch memory, t (11) = 3.67, P = 0.008 (see Fig. 1). ...
Citations
... In humans, putamen activation has been detected in a variety of auditory processes, including beat perception, sensory-motor predictability, finger tapping, music comprehension, tone discrimination, audiomotor coupling assumed to relate to temporal and sequential aspects of processing (i.e., syntax in language) and musical imagery (Geiser et al. 2012;Kotz et al. 2009;Pando-Naude et al. 2021). The left SMG, part of the somatosensory association cortex, apart from its involvement in phonological and articulatory processes (Oberhuber et al. 2016), has been shown to facilitate short-term pitch memory (Schaal et al. 2017;Vines et al. 2006) and maintenance of pitch information in studies using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS; Schaal et al. 2015). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), a region receiving projections from multiple sensory areas and limbic structures, plays a central role in sensory-input integration and in perception-based decision-making (Sharma and Bandyopadhyay 2020). ...
Auditory experience-dependent plasticity is often studied in the domain of musical expertise. Available evidence suggests that years of musical practice are associated with structural and functional changes in auditory cortex and related brain regions. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to investigate neural correlates of musical training and expertise beyond specific task influences. Here, we compared two groups of musicians with varying expertise: 24 aspiring professional musicians preparing for their entrance exam at Universities of Arts versus 17 amateur musicians without any such aspirations but who also performed music on a regular basis. We used an interval recognition task to define task-relevant brain regions and computed functional connectivity and graph-theoretical measures in this network on separately acquired resting-state data. Aspiring professionals performed significantly better on all behavioral indicators including interval recognition and also showed significantly greater network strength and global efficiency than amateur musicians. Critically, both average network strength and global efficiency were correlated with interval recognition task performance assessed in the scanner, and with an additional measure of interval identification ability. These findings demonstrate that task-informed resting-state fMRI can capture connectivity differences that correspond to expertise-related differences in behavior.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00429-023-02711-1.
... This method allows activation or inhibition of large brain networks through the scalp and the skull, depending on the direction of the current-inhibiting (cathodal) or ex citing (anodal). A tDCS can, for example, be used to modify musical memory by stimulat ing specific brain areas (Schaal et al., 2015) or improve motor performance in piano play ers suffering from musician's dystonia (Furuya at al., 2014). ...
Volume 2 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Performance is designed around four distinct parts: Enhancements, Health and Wellbeing, Science, and Innovations. Chapters on the popular Feldenkrais method and Alexander technique open the volume, and these lead to chapters on peak performance and mindfulness, stage behavior, impression management and charisma, enhancing music performance appraisal, and how to build a career and the skills and competencies needed to be successful. The part dealing with health and wellbeing surveys the brain mechanisms involved in music learning and performing and musical activities in people with disabilities, performance anxiety, diseases and health risks in instrumentalists, hearing and voice, and finally, a discussion of how to promote a healthy related lifestyle. The first six chapters of the Science part cover the basic science underlying the operation of wind, brass, string instruments, and the piano, and two chapters covering the solo voice and vocal ensembles. The final two chapters explain digital musical instruments and the practical issues that researchers and performers face when using motion capture technology to study movement during musical performances. The four chapters of the Innovations part address the types of technological and social and wellbeing innovations that are reshaping how musicians conceive their performances in the twenty-first century.
... There is vast evidence of tDCS-induced excitability modulations and subsequent behavioural changes in the visual, somatosensory, and motor domain (Antal et al., 2004;Matsunaga, Nitsche, Tsuji, & Rothwell, 2004;Matsushita, Andoh, & Zatorre, 2015;Nitsche & Paulus, 2000). In the auditory field the amount of research is less, however, various studies have shown the causal involvement of several brain areas such as the supramarginal gyrus and Heschl's gyrus for auditory task performances (Schaal, Javadi, et al., 2015;Schaal, Krause, et al., 2015;Vines, Schnider, & Schlaug, 2006). In the area of memory for melodies a study of our group using brief, previously unknown tonal melodies revealed a causal role of the right PPC in melody recognition in non-musicians. ...
The study investigates how transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the auditory cortex (AC) modulates memory for melodies under different noise conditions, whilst also considering cumulative disruptive interference effects. Forty-one participants completed a continuous recognition melody task, as well as a visual control task, which included four noise conditions for which noise was either present only during encoding (N-C), only during retrieval (C-N), during both (N-N) or not at all (C-C) and completed the tasks after receiving anodal or sham tDCS over the right AC. The results of the sham session replicate previous findings by revealing that memory for melodies is worse when noise in added to the encoding phase (N-C) whereas the N-N condition shows good performance, highlighting a context effect, and that cumulative disruptive interference is not present in memory for melodies except in the N-C condition. After anodal stimulation the memory pattern differs such as that memory performance is best in the C-C condition and furthermore the cumulative disruptive interference effect in the N-C condition is diminished. In sum, the study highlights the involvement of the right AC for memory for melodies and the results indicate an association of the AC for creating context effects.
... Interestingly, a few studies using repetitive TMS (rTMS) or transcranial direct stimulation (tDCS) have shown that the left SMG is involved in the storage of non-verbal information. These studies show that left SMG stimulation is detrimental when applied during the interval between the first and second tone sequences during a pitch memory task but not when applied during the presentation of the first sequence (Schaal et al. 2013(Schaal et al. , 2015aVines et al. 2006). The authors interpreted these findings as indicating that the left SMG is involved in the maintenance of pitch information, which suggests that the phonological store holds non-verbal auditory information in transient storage. ...
... priming Cohen's d = 1.04). These results are consistent with previous TMS studies that have documented an effect of TMS and tDCS during verbal (Deschamps et al. 2014;Kirschen et al. 2006;Romero et al. 2006) and non-verbal auditory WM tasks (Schaal et al. 2015a, b;Vines et al. 2006). The finding that TMS also disrupted the performance for non-speech sounds raises the possibility that the aSMG is involved in the short-term maintenance of auditory information, a domaingeneral mechanism. ...
It has been proposed that the maintenance of phonological information in verbal working memory (vWM) is carried by a domain-specific short-term storage center—the phonological loop—which is composed of a phonological store and an articulatory rehearsal system. Several brain regions including the left posterior inferior frontal gyrus (pIFG) and anterior supramarginal gyri (aSMG) are thought to support these processes. However, recent behavioral evidence suggests that verbal and non-verbal auditory information may be processed as part of a unique domain general short-term storage center instead of through specialized subsystems such as the phonological loop. In the current study, we used a single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-delayed priming paradigm with speech (syllables) and acoustically complex non-speech sounds (bird songs) to examine whether the pIFG and aSMG are involved in the processing of verbal information or, alternatively, in the processing of any complex auditory information. Our results demonstrate that TMS delivered to both regions had an effect on performance for speech and non-speech stimuli, but the nature of the effect was different. That is, priming was reduced for the speech sounds because TMS facilitated the detection of different but not identical stimuli, and accuracy was decreased for non-speech sounds. Since TMS interfered with both speech and non-speech sounds, these findings support the existence of an auditory short-term storage center located within the dorsal auditory stream.
... These questionnaires typically have a multi-dimensional structure with several subscales and an overall score. The questionnaires have been well received by the music research community and musical background/ expertise as measured by these questionnaires have been important covariates in many studies [i.e. 23, [24][25][26]. Moreover, several translations of musical background questionnaires have been published [27][28][29][30], which enables international comparisons of research results. ...
The present study introduces the German version of the original version of the Music@Home questionnaire developed in the UK, which systematically evaluates musical engagement in the home environment of young children. Two versions are available, an Infant version for children aged three to 23 months and a Preschool version for children aged two to five and a half years. For the present study, the original Music@Home questionnaire was translated from English into German and 656 caregivers completed the questionnaire online. A confirmatory factor analysis showed moderate to high fit indices for both versions, confirming the factor structure of the original questionnaire. Also, the reliability coefficients for the subscales (Parental beliefs, Child engagement with music, Parent initiation of singing, Parent initiation of music-making for the Infant version and Parental beliefs, Child engagement with music, Parent initiation of music behavior and Breadth of musical exposure for the Preschool version) ranged from moderate to high fits. Furthermore, the test-retest analysis (N = 392) revealed high correlations for the general factor and all subscales confirming their internal reliability. Additionally, we included language questionnaires for children of two and three years of age. Results showed that higher scores on the Music@Home questionnaire were moderately associated with better language skills in two-year-olds (N = 118). In sum, the study presents the validated German Music@Home questionnaire, which shows good psychometric properties. The two versions of the questionnaire are available for use in order to assess home musical engagement of young children, which could be of interest in many areas of developmental research.
... Additionally, positive correlations with personality traits were observed, particularly with openness and extraversion, and socio-demographic predictors were identified, such as age, education, and occupation. Since it was published, the Gold-MSI has attracted broad interest, as indicated by its growing use across a wide range of research settings, including neuroscientific and behavioral work with musicians (e.g., Schaal, Krause, et al., 2015), personality (e.g., Greenberg, Müllensiefen, Lamb, & Rentfrow, 2015), music psychology (e.g., Hadley, Sturt, Eerola, & Pickering, 2018;Hansen, Vuust, & Pearce, 2016;Jakubowski, Farrugia, & Stewart, 2016;Jakubowski, Halpern, Grierson, & Stewart, 2015), emotion (e.g., Taruffi, Allen, Downing, & Heaton, 2017), and auditory attention research (e.g., Bauer, Jaeger, Thorne, Bendixen, & Debener, 2015;Bleichner, Mirkovic, & Debener, 2016). ...
The Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI) was recently proposed as a self-report measure of musical skills and behaviors in the general population. Although it is becoming a widely used tool, relatively little is known about its correlates, and adaptations into different languages will be crucial for cross-cultural comparisons and to allow for use beyond the original validation context. In this study, we adapted the Gold-MSI for use with Portuguese speaking individuals and evaluated it with a Portuguese sample (N = 408; age range = 17–66 years; 306 women). We demonstrate that the Portuguese version of the Gold-MSI has appropriate psychometric properties, including good internal consistency and very good test–retest reliability. This was observed for the five subscales and for the general musical sophistication index (α values ⩾ 0.82, r values ⩾ 0.84). Using confirmatory factor analysis, the expected underlying factor structure was also confirmed. In addition, we identified associations between individual differences on the Gold-MSI and socio-demographic factors (age, sex, education, socio-economic status), personality traits, and music preferences. The Portuguese Gold-MSI is freely available, and it offers a reliable and valid tool that can contribute to the refined assessment of musical sophistication in a range of research contexts.
... Looking at tDCS studies investigating the neural basis of pitch memory in non-musicians, the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG) is one area that has received some attention with studies showing that pitch memory was facilitated after anodal stimulation (Schaal et al., 2013. Cathodal stimulation, on the other hand, led to a deterioration of pitch memory performance in healthy non-musicians (Vines et al., 2006;Schaal et al., 2015b). Taken together these studies provide strong evidence for the significance of the left SMG for pitch memory. ...
... The right DLPFC was located using the international 10-20 system for electroencephalogram electrode placement. This method of localization has been reported to be reliable and successful (Herwig et al., 2003;Antal et al., 2004;Schaal et al., 2015b). F4 has been established as a common location for targeting the right DLPFC (e.g., Rossi et al., 2001;Smirni et al., 2015). ...
... Looking at the pre-test pitch performances of our sample, it is notable that a group of participants (below median group) displayed fairly poor pitch memory abilities while the above median group displayed pitch memory abilities which match the performance level of healthy non-musicians reported in previous studies (Williamson and Stewart, 2010;Schaal et al., 2013Schaal et al., , 2015bSchaal et al., ,c, 2017. In the above median performers, cathodal tDCS over the right DLPFC selectively led to a significant deterioration of pitch memory supporting neuroimaging studies which have highlighted the activation of the right inferior frontal lobe during pitch memory processes (Zatorre et al., 1994;Gaab et al., 2003;Albouy et al., 2013). ...
Pitch memory is a resource which is shared by music and language. Neuroimaging studies have shown that the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is activated during pitch memory processes. The present study investigated the causal significance of this brain area for pitch memory in non-musicians by applying cathodal and sham transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the right DLPFC and examining the impact on offline pitch and visual memory span performances. On the overall sample (N = 22) no significant modulation effect of cathodal stimulation on the pitch span task was found. However, when dividing the sample by means of a median split of pre-test pitch memory abilities into a high and low performing group, a selective effect of significantly impaired pitch memory after cathodal tDCS in good performers was revealed. The visual control task was not affected by the stimulation in either group. The results support previous neuroimaging studies that the right DLPFC is involved in pitch memory processes in non-musicians and highlights the importance of baseline pitch memory abilities for the modulatory effect of tDCS.
... However, also some contrary effects depending on the duration and intensity of the stimulation input have been shown more recently 35 and there is an ongoing discussion about the reliability and efficiency of tDCS protocols depending on a number of trait and state variables 36,37 . With regards to pitch memory, studies using non-invasive brain stimulation methods have consistently revealed a critical role for the left SMG for pitch memory in non-musicians [38][39][40][41] . To date, no brain stimulation studies have been conducted to examine the neural mechanisms of rhythm memory. ...
... After stimulation, participants completed a pitch and rhythm span task. Based on previous research 38,40 , an improvement of pitch memory after anodal tDCS over the left SMG was expected. Regarding rhythm memory, an effect of anodal tDCS on memory performance was hypothesised as brain imaging studies show the involvement of the SMG for rhythm memory 12,13,43 , but the lateralisation of the effect is less predictable. ...
... The study highlights a different hemispheric involvement of the SMG for rhythm and pitch memory. The finding that the left but not right SMG is causally involved in pitch memory is as hypothesised and in accordance with previous studies 38,40,41 . Since rhythm memory was not modulated by tDCS over the left SMG, the results of Experiment 1 also reveal that the left SMG is not causally involved throughout the auditory memory domain. ...
Functional brain imaging studies and non-invasive brain stimulation methods have shown the importance of the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG) for pitch memory. The extent to which this brain region plays a crucial role in memory for other auditory material remains unclear. Here, we sought to investigate the role of the left and right SMG in pitch and rhythm memory in non-musicians. Anodal or sham transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) was applied over the left SMG (Experiment 1) and right SMG (Experiment 2) in two different sessions. In each session participants completed a pitch and rhythm recognition memory task immediately after tDCS. A significant facilitation of pitch memory was revealed when anodal stimulation was applied over the left SMG. No significant effects on pitch memory were found for anodal tDCS over the right SMG or sham condition. For rhythm memory the opposite pattern was found; anodal tDCS over the right SMG led to an improvement in performance, but anodal tDCS over the left SMG had no significant effect. These results highlight a different hemispheric involvement of the SMG in auditory memory processing depending on auditory material that is encoded.
... Research in the motor domain typically links anodal tDCS to a facilitation of neural activity, whereas cathodal tDCS more likely suppresses the cortical excitability under the site of stimulation (Nitsche & Paulus, 2000). Previous tDCS studies on pitch memory have revealed a causal link between the left supramarginal gyrus and pitch recognition and recall (Vines et al., 2006;Schaal et al., 2013Schaal et al., , 2014b, as well as between Heschl's gyrus and pitch discrimination (Mathys et al., 2010). Thus, we examined the causal involvement of the bilateral PPC for memory for whole melodies. ...
Functional brain imaging studies have highlighted the significance of right-lateralized temporal, frontal and parietal brain areas for memory for melodies. The present study investigated the involvement of bilateral posterior parietal cortices (PPC) for the recognition memory of melodies using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Participants performed a recognition task before and after tDCS. The task included an encoding phase (12 melodies), a retention period, as well as a recognition phase (24 melodies). Experiment 1 revealed that anodal tDCS over the right PPC leads to a deterioration of overall memory performance compared to sham. Experiment 2 confirmed the results of Experiment 1 and further showed that anodal tDCS over the left PPC does not show a modulatory effect on memory task performance, indicating a right lateralization for musical memory. Furthermore, both experiments revealed that the decline in memory for melodies can be traced back to an interference of anodal stimulation on the recollection process (remember judgments) rather than to familiarity judgements. Taken together, this study reveals a causal involvement of the right PPC for memory for melodies and demonstrates a key role for this brain region in the recollection process of the memory task. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Previous studies have shown that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can affect performance by decreasing regional excitability in a brain region that contributes to the task of interest. To our knowledge, no research to date has found both enhancing and diminishing effects on performance, depending upon which polarity of the current is applied. The supramarginal gyrus (SMG) is an ideal brain region for testing tDCS effects because it is easy to identify using the 10-20 electroencephalography coordinate system, and results of neuroimaging studies have implicated the left SMG in short-term memory for phonological and nonphonological sounds. In the present study, we found that applying tDCS to the left SMG affected pitch memory in a manner that depended upon the polarity of stimulation: cathodal tDCS had a negative impact on performance whereas anodal tDCS had a positive impact. These effects were significantly different from sham stimulation, which did not influence performance; they were also specific to the left hemisphere - no effect was found when applying cathodal stimulation to the right SMG - and were unique to pitch memory as opposed to memory for visual shapes. Our results provide further evidence that the left SMG is a nodal point for short-term auditory storage and demonstrate the potential of tDCS to influence cognitive performance and to causally examine hypotheses derived from neuroimaging studies.
