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Bar chart of the estimated TOTOX for fish oil supplements (n = 44). The vertical dashed line is the maximum allowable limit of the TOTOX. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244688.g003
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Background
Fish oil supplements that are rich in omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs). PUFAs are among the most widely-used dietary supplements globally, and millions of people consume them regularly. There have always been public concerns that these products should be guaranteed to be safe and of good quality, especially as t...
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Citations
... α-C18:3 converts to EPA via delta 6-desaturase and delta 5-desaturase[41]. EPA, extensively studied for its cardiovascular benefits, presents potential adverse effects, including oxidative stress and increased bleeding risk [42]. Another study indicated higher EPA intake associated with elevated T2DM risk [43]. ...
BACKGROUND
The understanding of bile acid (BA) and unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) profiles, as well as their dysregulation, remains elusive in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) coexisting with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Investigating these metabolites could offer valuable insights into the pathophy-siology of NAFLD in T2DM.
AIM
To identify potential metabolite biomarkers capable of distinguishing between NAFLD and T2DM.
METHODS
A training model was developed involving 399 participants, comprising 113 healthy controls (HCs), 134 individuals with T2DM without NAFLD, and 152 individuals with T2DM and NAFLD. External validation encompassed 172 participants. NAFLD patients were divided based on liver fibrosis scores. The analytical approach employed univariate testing, orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis, logistic regression, receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, and decision curve analysis to pinpoint and assess the diagnostic value of serum biomarkers.
RESULTS
Compared to HCs, both T2DM and NAFLD groups exhibited diminished levels of specific BAs. In UFAs, particular acids exhibited a positive correlation with NAFLD risk in T2DM, while the ω-6:ω-3 UFA ratio demonstrated a negative correlation. Levels of α-linolenic acid and γ-linolenic acid were linked to significant liver fibrosis in NAFLD. The validation cohort substantiated the predictive efficacy of these biomarkers for assessing NAFLD risk in T2DM patients.
CONCLUSION
This study underscores the connection between altered BA and UFA profiles and the presence of NAFLD in individuals with T2DM, proposing their potential as biomarkers in the pathogenesis of NAFLD.
... Solid waste was then pressed to get the fish oil by-products in the fish meal processing. Moreover, high impurities in fish oil by-products obtained from processing can initiate oxidation, leading to the quality degradation of fish oil products [30][31][32][33]. Fish oil supplements are highly susceptible to oxidative degradation, which can cause the development of rancid off-flavors and degradation of essential nutrients, thus affecting sensory and nutritional qualities and shelf life [33,34]. ...
Fish oil by-product (FOB) recovered from the precooking process in the cannery industry and the pressing process in fish meal production are potential resources. However, this fish oil still needs a refinery process to improve the quality of fish oil. This study aimed to identify the physicochemical characteristics of the initial fish oil by-product, the physicochemical profiles, and fatty acids of the fish oil by-product after degumming neutralization and bleaching (bentonite, zeolite, and carbon adsorbents) processes from the cannery and fish meal industry. Results showed the initial physicochemical characteristics of fish oil waste from fish flour have lower quality than canned products (acid value, free fatty acids, PV, AV, TOTOX value, viscosity, and refractive index) but are inversely proportional to the iodine value. Results showed degumming (D) and neutralization (N) processes from the Fish oil canning process (FCP) and Fish oil meal process (FMP) could improve the quality parameters of fish oil by-products by reducing the acid value (7.90, 0.65, 9.17, 0.58 mg KOH/g), respectively; free fatty acid (3.97, 0.33, 4.60, 0.29 % oleic) respectively; peroxide value (PV) (15.18, 7.38, 17.64, 7.10 mEq/kg), respectively; anisidine value (AV) (14.36, 6.61, 14.64, 6.51) respectively; total oxidation (TOTOX) value (44.72, 21.37, 49.64, 20.71) respectively; and iodine (167, 153, 163, 155 mg/100 g), respectively as well as increasing the lightness (23.80, 25.70, 20.65, 26.00), respectively. In the bleaching process (B), zeolite (15 %) was an effective adsorbent to obtain oil with the best quality parameters due to zeolite possessed greater polarity and surface area at a higher concentration, which resulted in the acid value for FCP and FMP (0.26, 0.22 mg KOH/g); free fatty acid (0.13, 0.15 % oleic); PV (2.44, 5.71 mEq/kg); AV (2.5, 4.9); TOTOX value (7.16, 9.11); and iodine (138, 151 mg/100 g) as well as increasing the lightness (37.08, 36.74) that are appropriate to International Fishmeal & Oil Manufacturers Association (IFOMA), Codex Alimentarius Committee (CAC), and International Fish Oils Standards (IFOS) standards (p < 0.05). All adsorbents effectively increase the brightness of the FOB. The higher the concentration of adsorbents, the higher the clarity of the FOB. For zeolite absorbents, there was an increase of 16.73-32.3 % for FCP and 15.39-32.69 % for FMP, but the viscosity decreased with a range of 24.50-36.50 cPs. FCP contains 14 fatty acids, while FMP contains 12 fatty acids. The number of SFA and MUFA detected in FCP is lower than in FMP. In contrast, the amount of PUFA in FCP is relatively higher than in FMP. The percentage of EPA and DHA in FCP is lower than in FMP. Overall, the refining process affects the fatty acid composition of fish oil by-products both in the canning process and in fish meal.
... Concerns about lipid peroxidation arise due to the nature of the polyunsaturated bonds in EPA and DHA, which, relative to saturated bonds, are more easily oxidized, resulting in the production of fatty acid free-radicals (lipid peroxides) which are harmful to cellular integrity [110]. This effect can be mitigated by including a sufficient antioxidant in the oil, by keeping supplements stored in cool, dark places and by using supplements before their expiry date. ...
Fatty fish, which include mackerel, herring, salmon and sardines, and certain species of algae (e.g., Schizochytrium sp., Crytthecodiniumcohnii and Phaeodactylumtricornutum) are the only naturally rich sources of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA are the most biologically active members of the n-3 PUFA family. Limited dietary sources and fluctuating content of EPA and DHA in fish raise concerns about the status of EPA and DHA among athletes, as confirmed in a number of studies. The beneficial effects of EPA and DHA include controlling inflammation, supporting nervous system function, maintaining muscle mass after injury and improving training adaptation. Due to their inadequate intake and beneficial health-promoting effects, athletes might wish to consider using supplements that provide EPA and DHA. Here, we provide an overview of the effects of EPA and DHA that are relevant to athletes and discuss the pros and cons of supplements as a source of EPA and DHA for athletes.
... It was discovered that the extraction temperature factor of 60℃ for 20 mins would produce a minimum response of 13.27, while the maximum response was 28.646 obtained from 80℃ extraction temperature for 40 mins. Jairoun et al. (2020) reported that higher total oxidation happened because the total oxidation number is the sum of twice the peroxide number, with p-anisidine value as the primary oxidation value (free fatty acid and peroxide number) and the secondary oxidation value (p-anisidine). Based on IFOMA (1998), a good crude fish oil quality standard has a total oxidation value of 10-60 meq/kg, hence, this research met the IFOMA standard. ...
Tilapia is one of the export commodities with superior fish fillet products. Fillet processing produces much waste, one of which is viscera, which has the potential as raw material for fish oil. Several factors, including the method, temperature, and extraction time, influenced the quality of fish oil. This study aimed to determine the effect of wet rendering, extraction time and temperature on tilapia viscera oil and determine the best temperature and time based on the characteristics of fish oil using response surface methodology (RSM). The data analysis comprised the peroxide value, free fatty acid, anisidine value, total oxidation, and yield value. The result was then optimized using the response surface method with Design Expert 11. The recommended model is linear. The results for extraction at 60℃ for 25.95 mins had a yield, peroxide, free fatty acid, p-anisidine, and total oxidation value of 21.6%, 6.69 meq/kg, 4.16%, 3.87 meq/kg, 17.79, respectively, with, a desirability value of 0.62.
... Discussion about DSs can be problematic because arguments for and against their use tend to be polarized and emotional despite, at times, concerns with available evidence. Opinions vary widely, with some researchers recommending that DSs should be evaluated in a similar way as conventional medicines and foodstuffs, and others promoting a customized approach, as DSs often contain several ingredients and are based on traditional or historical beliefs concerning their therapeutic value (Dwyer et al. 2018;Jairoun et al. 2020cJairoun et al. , 2020d. Findings from research that was performed in the UAE indicate a perception that sports nutrition positively impacts exercise performance and enhances health. ...
... Additionally, before new DSs come to market, samples must be examined by municipal laboratories. However, cases have occurred in which DSs are duly approved for sale and marketed but later found to be contaminated with microorganisms (Consumer Products Safety Section (CPSS) 2016; Jairoun et al. 2020cJairoun et al. , 2020d. In the USA, products marketed as performance-enhancing have been recalled after contamination was found, either from prescription medicines such as sildenafil, which are designed to enhance sexual performance, or amphetamine analogues (Carvajal 2010;Cohen and Venhuis 2013). ...
... In the present study, most of the tested supplements exceeded the recommended levels of PV which is less than the levels found in the New Zealand study (83%) and in the South Africa study (84%) (Opperman & Benade, 2013), but higher than the level of the United Arab Emirates (40.95%) (UAE) study (Jairoun, Shahwan, & Zyoud, 2020) and the Canadian study (17%) (Jackowski et al., 2015). ...
... In regards to AV, only a small number of the tested supplements exceeded the safe levels of AV. Which was below the New Zealand study (25%) and the Canadian study (41%) (Jackowski et al., 2015), but slightly higher than the UAE study (6.8%) (Jairoun et al., 2020). The AV level is an indication of further oxidation and the production of harmful secondary metabolites (Albert, Cameron-Smith, Hofman, & Cutfield, 2013;Shahidi & Zhong, 2010). ...
... Moreover, some of the tested supplements recorded Totox higher than the recommended (26 meq/kg). That is lower than the New Zealand study (50%) and the Canadian study (50%) (Jackowski et al., 2015), yet higher than UAE study (27.3%) (Jairoun et al., 2020). ...
... Discussion about DSs can be problematic because arguments for and against their use tend to be polarized and emotional despite, at times, concerns with available evidence. Opinions vary widely, with some researchers recommending that DSs should be evaluated in a similar way as conventional medicines and foodstuffs, and others promoting a customized approach, as DSs often contain several ingredients and are based on traditional or historical beliefs concerning their therapeutic value (Dwyer et al. 2018;Jairoun et al. 2020cJairoun et al. , 2020d. Findings from research that was performed in the UAE indicate a perception that sports nutrition positively impacts exercise performance and enhances health. ...
... Additionally, before new DSs come to market, samples must be examined by municipal laboratories. However, cases have occurred in which DSs are duly approved for sale and marketed but later found to be contaminated with microorganisms (Consumer Products Safety Section (CPSS) 2016; Jairoun et al. 2020cJairoun et al. , 2020d. In the USA, products marketed as performance-enhancing have been recalled after contamination was found, either from prescription medicines such as sildenafil, which are designed to enhance sexual performance, or amphetamine analogues (Carvajal 2010;Cohen and Venhuis 2013). ...
Aim
To assess knowledge and risk awareness about weight loss supplements and their possible adverse consequences, and to investigate significant factors impacting such knowledge and risk awareness.
Subject and methods
A descriptive analytical cross-sectional community-based study was performed among students and teaching staff at Ajman University (AU). A self-administered survey was sent to respondents’ emails via a web-based electronic link. The questionnaire included demographic data, respondents’ knowledge and risk awareness about the use of the weight loss supplements they were taking and their ingredients, and adverse events after the use of any weight loss supplements.
Results
One thousand participants completed the questionnaire. Most participants had good risk awareness about weight loss supplements. A total of 391 (39.1%; 95% CI: 30.7–48) participants used weight loss supplement products, and among them, 126 (32.2%; 95% CI: 22.4–36) experienced related side effects. The most common complaints were gastrointestinal symptoms (34.9%); warmth or redness of the face, neck, or chest (25.4%); and headaches (17.5%). A multivariate analysis showed that better risk awareness scores regarding weight loss supplement use were significantly associated with educational level, employment status, and participant gender.
Conclusion
The current study revealed some misconceptions about the safety of slimming dietary supplements (SDS). Consequently, awareness should be raised regarding SDS use, and regulatory action should be taken to prevent their inappropriate or excessive SDS use.
... It has been recognized that standard and reliable analytical methods for functional ingredients can contribute to the development of the food products, such as the polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish oil [30], isoflavones in soybeans [31], and polyphenols in grape pomace [32]. Therefore, establishing the regulatory standards using appropriate methods and ensuring product access availability for consumers can enhance market transparency and inspire the development of the industry. ...
Cystine-enriched food supplements are increasingly popular due to their beneficial health effects. However, the lack of industry standards and market regulations resulted in quality issues with cystine food products, including cases of food adulteration and fraud. This study established a reliable and practical method for determining cystine in food supplements and additives using quantitative NMR (qNMR). With the optimized testing solvent, acquisition time, and relaxation delay, the method exhibited higher sensitivity, precision, and reproducibility than the conventional titrimetric method. Additionally, it was more straightforward and more economical than HPLC and LC-MS. Furthermore, the current qNMR method was applied to investigate different food supplements and additives regarding cystine quantity. As a result, four of eight food supplement samples were found to be inaccurately labeled or even with fake labeling, with the relative actual amount of cystine ranging from 0.3% to 107.2%. In comparison, all three food additive samples exhibited satisfactory quality (the relative actual amount of cystine: 97.0–99.9%). Notably, there was no obvious correlation between the quantifiable properties (price and labeled cystine amount) of the tested food supplement samples and their relative actual amount of cystine. The newly developed qNMR-based approach and the subsequent findings might help standardization and regulation of the cystine supplement market.
... As the DS market has increasingly globally, and with the associated profitability, a greater emphasis is being placed on ensuring these supplements are of suitable quality. This is because there have been a rising number of cases in which users of DS have adverse reactions and even cases of death as a result of products containing contaminants Jairoun et al., 2020aJairoun et al., , 2020b. In addition, a rise in fraudulent claims with some of the DS potentially toxic (Lordan, 2021). ...
... Alongside this, samples of new products must undergo examination in municipal laboratories before being allowed onto the market in UAE (Government of Dubai, 2022). However, despite these precautions, there have been cases in which DSs contaminated with microorganisms have been approved and released for sale in UAE and wider (Consumer Products Safety Section [CPSS], 2016; Jairoun et al., 2020aJairoun et al., , 2020b. Similarly, some products marketed under claims to enhance performance have been recalled in the United States because they were identified to be contaminated by either prescription medicines designed to boost sexual performance, for example, sildenafil, or amphetamine analogues (Carvajal, 2010;Cohen & Venhuis, 2013). ...
Sexual enhancement supplements (SESs) that have illegal additions of pharmaceuticals or analogues pose a significant health risk, particularly with long-term usage. When supplements are adulterated with phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) inhibitors, dosages can vary widely and there may be an increase in adverse effects and drug-drug interactions which cannot be avoided. Consequently, there is a need to evaluate the public risk awareness toward SES and the associated adverse events as well as explore significant factors associated with knowledge and risk awareness. A cross-sectional community-based study was conducted among University male students and staff at Ajman University, United Arab Emirates (UAE), using a self-administered survey via a web-based electronic link to explore key issues. A total of 1,101 male subjects participated in the study and completed the questionnaire. Four hundred and thirty-three(39.3%) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 33.2-44.5) participants reported using SES products. Of these, 137 (31.6%) [95% CI: 28.6-37.2] experienced adverse effects from SES product use. SES use was more prevalent among participants aged 60 to 69 years (odds ratio [OR]: 2.94; 95% CI: 1.63-5.28), diabetic patients (OR: 2.61; 95% CI: 1.75-3.90), hypertension patients (OR: 2.12; 95% CI: 1.45-3.1), and those overweight or obese (OR: 1.84; 95% CI: 1.44-2.35). This study indicates that SES is a popular practice among the UAE university staff and students. However, there is a need to implement risk awareness programs to raise public awareness regarding SES use and safety. Regulatory bodies are encouraged to provide additional advice on the proper use and possible risks of consuming SES.
... Even in the USA, fish oil is the most widely used non-vitamin, non-mineral dietary supplement [1]. Marine fish oil is one of the potential sources of food as a source of unsaturated fatty acids, both as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially to meet the needs of essential fatty acids (EFAs) [1][2][3]. The human body can't produce EFA, so food must be supplied directly from food to meet its needs. ...
Sea fish is one potential resource for foodstuff to complete the essential fatty acids needed by our body. The investigation of local potential has to be done more intensively, especially during the local otonomy policy. Providing scientific information supported by research is very important, as well as research itself, development, and exploration of local resources. The purpose of this research was identified fatty acids in sea fish oil at East Java waters, which can result in fatty acid content map from many fish species at this territory. Fish oil was isolated from fish meat by the Soxhlet extraction method using petroleum ether as the solvent, while fatty acids identification was carried out by forming their methyl ester fatty acid by the trans-esterification method. The result of fatty acid methyl ester from the trans-esterification reaction was directly analyzed by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The research was carried out for three species of sea fishes which was captured by fisherman from three locations of Fish auction are Sardinella longiceps (TPI Situbondo), Katsuwonus pelamis (TPI Lamongan), and Scomberomorus linocuts (TPI Malang). The yield of oil fish isolation from Sardinella longiceps was 11.96% (from the dry weight), and the identification of fatty acids content showed palmitoleic acid (12.06%), myristic acid (12.43%), stearic acid (14.14%), oleic acid (15.37%), palmitic acid (31.64%), omega-3 fatty acid as eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA (1.28%). The yield of oil fish isolation from Katsuwonus pelamis was 5.60% (from the dry weight). The identification of fatty acids content was found palmitic acid (42.34%), stearic acid (14.14%), oleic acid (4.65%), vaccenic acid (2.89%), omega-6 fatty acid as eicosadienoic acid, EDA (1.78%), and arachidonic acid (3.13%). The yield of oil fish isolation from Scomberomorus linocuts was 8.36% (from the dry weight). The identification of fatty acids content found palmitoleic acid (10.22%), stearic acid (19.07%), palmitic acid (40.13%), myristic acid (4.61%), omega-3 fatty acid as eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA (7.88%), and vaccenic acid (9.75%).
