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Ballistic limit thickness for Stanag 4569 level 3 threat: (a) full bullet model with Lagrange discretization, (b) steel core model with Lagrange discretization and (c) steel core model with SPH discretization.
Source publication
Although advanced lightweight composite based armors are available, high hardness steels in military vehicles are often used to provide ballistic protection at a relatively low cost and is an interesting material due to its widespread usage in vehicle structure. In this study, ballistic limit of 500 HB armor steel was determined against 7.62 mm 54R...
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Citations
... Considerable research has been conducted by scholars 26,27 to determine the material constants of the bullet. A comparative analysis reveals that the simulation results obtained using the projectile parameters reported in Kilic's study 26 align well with the shooting results. ...
... Considerable research has been conducted by scholars 26,27 to determine the material constants of the bullet. A comparative analysis reveals that the simulation results obtained using the projectile parameters reported in Kilic's study 26 align well with the shooting results. Consequently, the parameters reported by Kilic 26 are selected for this study, and their values are listed in Table 2. ...
... J-C parameters for the target plate and AP bullet26 . ...
In order to establish a connection between the ballistic performance and mechanical properties of armor steel, a ballistic simulation model was developed and subsequently validated for accuracy and reliability. The mechanical properties of the target plate were described using the Johnson–Cook constitutive relation. An analysis was conducted to investigate the impact of the J–C parameters of the target plate on its ballistic performance, revealing a strong linear relationship between them. Subsequently, a mathematical model represented as H = 14.82 − 0.0048A − 0.0023B + 5.95n − 81.3C was derived, and its accuracy was demonstrated to exceed 90%. This mathematical model can effectively predict the ballistic performance of the armor steel, even when its mechanical properties undergo variations during the production process. This prediction capability significantly contributes to reducing research costs and time.
... Considering penetration mechanism simulations, Namik and Bulent numerically investigated the perforation of 7.62 mm AP projectiles in high-strength steel armour. They concluded that the strain rate parameters in the projectile model must be modified to eliminate premature erosion of the projectile tip during simulations [5]. ...
The ballistic performance and penetration capabilities of armour piercing (AP) projectiles have attracted considerable interest, especially with the development of personal body armour. This paper presents the steps for converting conventional 7.62x51 mm AP projectiles into advanced ones provided with tungsten carbide cores. Designing, finite element modeling and testing procedures have been studied to enhance the penetration capability of developed projectiles. The internal ballistic parameters were calculated for these projectiles to ensure barrel safety. PRODAS ballistic software is used to predict the stability of developed projectiles during flight. The penetration ability in armour steel with a hardness of 450–500 HB for all the designed projectiles as well as the traditional NATO AP projectile is evaluated both numerically using ANSYS software and experimentally by fining. In conclusion, the penetration capability of the best configuration of the developed projectiles is almost twice that of the NATO AP projectile.
... Fras et al. examined the defeat mechanism of a 20 mm thick super bainitic plate with 4 mm diameter array of holes and compared it with Mars 190 armour plate. They concluded that Mars 190 armour plate with an areal weight of 129.7 kg/m 2 can be substituted by perforated super-brainitic plate with a weight of 85.2 kg/m2 [61]. In this study, areal weights were calculated between 97.70 and 88.10 kg/m 2 and considering the high density of armour steels, the method and welding consumables used stand out as promising alternatives. ...
The aim of this study was to develop plates resistant to ballistic limits by welding on S355JR steel plate with Fe-Cr-C and austenitic electrodes. A total of four different weld coated materials were prepared for ballistic testing. For these four different coatings, E Z Fe 14 (Fe 14), E Fe 16 (Fe16) hardfacing electrodes and E 18 8 Mn R 3 2 (307) austenitic stainless steel electrode were selected, respectively. The coatings were made in the electric arc welding machine, with two different coatings on the surface for each material. These are Fe 14 – Fe 14, Fe 16 – Fe 16, 307-Fe 14 and 307-Fe 16, as the first layer and the second layer, respectively. In all coatings, the welding current was kept constant at 150 A and the welding voltage was kept constant at 27 V. The microstructure, hardness, and ballistic properties of the hardfacing surfaces were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) to analyze the phases and components. The hardnesses of the hardfacing surfaces were determined by Vickers methods from the weld metal to the base metal. Ballistic tests were conducted according to NIJ Level III standards, firing 7.62×51 mm AP bullets from a distance of 10 m to calculate the effects of the bullets on the plates, the kinetic energy of the bullet, and the amount of energy absorbed by the plates. Welding for hard surface coating achieved with the combination of 307 - Fe 14 electrodes provides the highest ballistic limit velocity at 830 m/s, while the lowest limit is observed in the material welded with Fe16-Fe16 electrodes at 747 m/s. Fe-Cr-C electrodes were found to be effective as main or auxiliary components when designing armor plates. This study highlights the potential of hardfacing techniques to improve the ballistic properties of steel surfaces, with implications for the development of protective materials across various industries.
... Steel is the most often used structural material in engineering, and there is currently a considerable demand for studies on its dynamic behavior under impact situations [10][11][12]. Currently, little is known about how strikes, particularly those involving reactive fragment impacts, affect such equidistant steel plate constructions. ...
... where ∆ε eq is the equivalent plastic strain increment for a calculated cycle, and ε f is equivalent fracture strain [12,44,45]. The failure model parameters of Q345S, 304SS, and reactive fragment are shown in Table 6. ...
In this paper, the AUTODYN/Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method was used to study the impact of reactive fragments on three-layer equidistant steel plates. The perforation characteristics of equidistant three-layer steel plates were investigated along with the parameters of combustion energy release from reactive fragments under varied impact velocities and shape conditions. The modification of the steel plates’ perforation diameter was investigated using the dimensional analysis approach. The shock wave pressure and chemical reaction characteristics were examined using the shock wave theory. The results show that within the examined impact velocity range, the perforation diameter initially increased and then decreased as the impact velocity of the reactive fragment rose. In addition, the perforation diameter was approximately 1.5–3 times the diameter of the reactive fragment. As the impact speed increased, the active reaction generated by the reactive fragments became more sufficient. The energy released contributed to the impact’s pressure rise; in addition, the temperature of the steel plate was raised in part by the reactive fragment impact, making the steel plate more prone to melting. The results of this investigation provide important support for a detailed understanding of the rules governing the failure of steel plates under the impact of reactive fragments as well as the combustion of reactive fragments under impact.
... In order to better represent the dynamic behavior of the core in this study, the hardness, quasi-static compression, and dynamic compression performance of the core were tested in this study (according to national testing standards). The results of the tests are shown in Table 3. Combined with the tensile properties reported by Namık Kılı [20], the JC parameters of the hard steel core were proposed. ...
... Then, Børvik and some authors [6][7][8][9][10][11][12] presented other approaches that examined on ballistic resistance of the aluminium alloy. Kılıç and Ekici [13] conducted research on the degree to which high-hardness armour steels resisted penetration by 7.62 millimetre armour-piercing bullets. Thom and his co-workers [14,15] studied the mechanical behaviour of cracked plate structures made of advanced materials. ...
... This paper studies numerically and experimentally Xar450 and Perform700 target plates with thicknesses varying by 3, 4, and 6 mm each impacted at 0, 15°, 30°, 45°, and 60° of obliquity against a 7.62 × 39 mm API BZ projectile. The material parameters of both targets and bullets for the Johnson-Cook constitutive relation and the Johnson-Cook failure criterion are based on [4][5][6]8,13,16], and [28]. The establishment of material modelling in the simulation software necessitates the use of these specified material attributes. ...
... The core mass of the bullet is somewhat smaller than the required core mass for test level 8 based on VPAM APR 2006, as shown in Table 3. The mechanical properties and material parameters of the bullet can be taken from [4][5][6]8,13,37]. ...
This paper uses numerical and experimental methods to look at how well Xar450 and Perform 700 high-strength steels protect against a 7.62 × 39 mm API BZ projectile. The numerical study of the target thicknesses varies from 3 mm to 4 mm and 6 mm. And they are struck at 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, and 60° oblique angles. Numerical simulation results show that at a normal impact angle, the bullet can break through the Perform700 targets in all thicknesses; however , the resistance performance of the target plate increases with the rise of oblique angles. The Xar450 target plates of 4 mm and 6 mm can resist the bullet at any oblique angle, but the bullet can easily penetrate 3 mm thickness from 0° to 30° oblique angles. The experiment is based on the VPAM-APR 2006 standard. The experiment results showed that the bullet perforated through the Perform700 target plate with a thickness of 3 mm at 0° and 30° oblique angles. In contrast, the bullet cannot penetrate the Xar450 target thickness of 4 mm at a normal angle. The findings of this research are used in the formulation of the design methodology for a light armoured vehicle. Besides, they have considerable importance in the realm of calculating and developing anti-fracture structures for practical applications. ARTICLE HISTORY
... In this regard, the very high hardness of titanium-based materials reminds one of the biggest challenges in possible development of this industry further. For instance, the hardiness of the hard-core bullet is close to 780 HV and even higher [14], whereas the hardness of the most commonly used for armor alloy Ti-6Al-4V (wt.%, Ti64) is close to 320-350 HV [15]. ...
Titanium alloy composites, reinforced with a light second phase and made using inexpensive powder metallurgy, attract considerable attention due to the directness of their intentional hardness increase without compromising low weight of materials. In this study the metal-matrix composites (MMC) of Ti-6Al-4V alloy reinforced with light and hard particles of TiC (up to 80%, vol.) were made using blended elemental powder metallurgy of hydrogenated titanium. Post-sintering solution treatment for 45 min at 880 °C and 1000 °C and water quenching followed by the 5 hrs. aging at 550 °C was used to additionally refine the microstructure and properties of MMC. For the duration of thermal exposure throughout solution treatment and additional aging the matrix and reinforcement phase underwent distinct structural changes that modified the mechanical properties of materials. It has been shown that the used reinforcement presents an exceptional opportunity for hardening of Ti-based composites without compromising its low specific weigh. It can increase the hardness of material by more than 40% due to the ability of TiC to chemically react with the matrix to form a strong interfacial bond and its ability to form hard compounds of Ti 2 C and Ti 3 AlC in the expense of the relatively soft matrix alloy.
... Among these numerical modeling techniques, the finite element (FE) method has proven to be highly effective (see e.g. [7][8][9][10][11]). FE analysis has successfully captured residual velocities and failure mechanisms, demonstrating good correlation with experimental data. ...
... These models mostly depend on one or more of the relevant variables such as plastic strain, strain rate, temperature, stress triaxiality and Lode angle (see JC [32], modified Mohr-Coulomb (MMC) [33], Cockcroft-Latham (CL) [34] etc.). JC failure model has been widely used in tandem with the JC plasticity model to capture strain rate and temperature dependent failure in many applications including ballistic impact [35,36,37]. In more recent applications, Lode parameter dependent failure models have been adopted to increase the prediction accuracy for shear-dependent failures [38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45]. ...
In this work, a numerical analysis of shaped charge impact process is conducted to investigate the jet formation process and its penetration performance on metal targets. Numerical results are compared with experimental data from published literature for liners made up of copper and iron. Conical and bowl-shaped liner geometries are simulated with various configurations to observe their effects on projectile shape and penetration capability using the finite element (FE) method. The exact shape of the explosively formed projectile at the onset of impact is modeled as a rigid 3D body to simulate the penetration process. #45 and Armox 500T steels are used as the target materials, and the material behavior and failure mechanisms are modeled using the Johnson-Cook (JC) plasticity and damage models. In addition to the FE method, smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) is utilized as well to evaluate its capacity in predicting the failure behavior of the metal targets. It is concluded that the FE method outperforms the SPH method at predicting failure modes while SPH can still be used to predict residual velocity and hole diameters. Armox 500T demonstrates a higher impact resistance compared to #45 steel. Liner geometry is found to significantly affect penetration performance. Sharper and thinner projectiles formed from liners with small cone angles are shown to be highly efficient in penetrating through armor steel targets.
... All elements were discretized using the Lagrange method, allowing for cost savings, integration of complicated material models, and precise definition of material interfaces [35]. To simplify the complexity of the simulation, since the kinetic energy consumed by the stripping of the bullet casing is very little, only the steel core of the projectile was modeled for all the numerical analyses, without the copper jacket and lead cap, as reported elsewhere [36]. For balanced numerical accuracy and computational efficiency, the region directly beneath the projectile impact of 5 mm radius of the target was divided into 0.1 Â 0.1 Â 0.1 mm 3 in element size, and the mesh size gradually coarsened to 2.9 Â 2.7 Â 0.1 mm 3 at the outer edge. ...
