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In this work, Electric Vehicles (EVs) are charged using a new and improved charging mechanism called the Mobile-Vehicle-to-Vehicle (M2V) charging strategy. It is further compared with conventional Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) charging strategies. In the proposed work, the charging of vehicles is done in a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) ma...
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... solutions proposed for tackling these limitations are also provided in Table 3 and are referred to as S.1-S.9. Users are given incentives to increase their interest and participation in the proposed work Figure 2 shows the authentication process of the vehicles, which was motivated by [44]. First of all, the new vehicles are directed towards the AU for registration. ...
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... of all, the new vehicles are directed towards the AU for registration. The arrows pointing towards the AU from the vehicles in Figure 2 show the coming in of new vehicles. The AU assigns unique identity key pairs to the vehicles, consisting of a private key and a public key. ...
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... table makes the comparison between different difficulty levels easy to understand. decoded input { "address Make": "Honda", "address Model": "X", "uint256 Batterysize": "12" } decoded output {} Figure 22 shows the output results when a weather information file is added to the IPFS according to the conditions set in the smart contract. Similarly, Figure 23 shows the output when the IPFS assigns a malicious state to a vehicle, denies the file retrieval request, and considers it a malicious request. ...
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... input { "address Make": "Honda", "address Model": "X", "uint256 Batterysize": "12" } decoded output {} Figure 22 shows the output results when a weather information file is added to the IPFS according to the conditions set in the smart contract. Similarly, Figure 23 shows the output when the IPFS assigns a malicious state to a vehicle, denies the file retrieval request, and considers it a malicious request. Figure 24 shows the output results when a user inquires about the total number of files stored already in the IPFS and retrieves the ID of a specific file from the IPFS. ...
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... Figure 23 shows the output when the IPFS assigns a malicious state to a vehicle, denies the file retrieval request, and considers it a malicious request. Figure 24 shows the output results when a user inquires about the total number of files stored already in the IPFS and retrieves the ID of a specific file from the IPFS. Similar outputs are obtained when a road information file is added to the IPFS. ...
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The gradual transition from a traditional transportation system to an intelligent transportation system (ITS) has paved the way to preserve green environments in metro cities. Moreover, electric vehicles (EVs) seem to be beneficial choices for traveling purposes due to their low charging costs, low energy consumption, and reduced greenhouse gas emi...
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... This review paper delves into the incorporation of blockchain technology within EV charging systems powered by renewable energy, spanning research from 2017 to 2023 and carefully examining 48 academic publications (Li and Hu, 2021;Yahaya et al., 2020;Li and Hu, 2020;Samuel et al., 2020;Samuel et al., 2022;Zhang Q. et al., 2022;Liang et al., 2022;Liu et al., 2022;Kumar et al., 2023;Wang et al., 2023;Chen et al., 2021;Hassan et al., 2022;Wen et al., 2022;Lasla et al., 2020;Khalid et al., 2020;Dorokhova et al., 2021;Cavalcante et al., 2023;Bouachir et al., 2022;Barnawi et al., 2021;Mhaisen et al., 2019;Javed et al., 2021;Florea, 2020;Javed et al., 2020;Akhter et al., 2022;Zhang S. et al., 2022;Zhao et al., 2022;Salmani et al., 2022;Munsing et al., 2017;Zhang et al., 2018;Meena and Yang, 2019;Elliott et al., 2020;Wang and Zhang, 2022;Baza et al., 2021;Zhou et al., 2019;Debe et al., 2021;Javed and Javaid, 2019;Luo et al., 2022;Khalid et al., 2021;Abishu et al., 2022;Liu et al., 2019;Seven et al., 2020). The exclusion of non-academic sources was deliberate, prioritizing scientific rigor. ...
... Approximately 56.25% of the papers did not explicitly mention the challenges for the system they developed in their study, as depicted in Figure 8. Limitations addressed by the remaining studies are summarized in Table 11. The most prevalent limitation observed was related to system scalability issues (Lasla et al., 2020;Dorokhova et al., 2021;Mhaisen et al., 2019;Florea, 2020;Javed et al., 2020;Barnawi et al., 2021;Javed et al., 2021;Akhter et al., 2022). Many papers noted that implementing systems on a blockchain network with a proof-ofwork (PoW) consensus protocol requires substantial computational resources as the network size increases. ...
... Many papers noted that implementing systems on a blockchain network with a proof-ofwork (PoW) consensus protocol requires substantial computational resources as the network size increases. Several papers also highlighted security concerns despite blockchain adoption (Samuel et al., 2022;Zhang S. et al., 2022;Zhao et al., 2022;Javed et al., 2020), often due to single points of failure in data management or reliance on centralized third parties. Ensuring a fully secure system remains challenging. ...
With the rise of the 3Ds—decarbonization, decentralization, and digitalization—the number of electric vehicles is projected to increase, necessitating the implementation of modern technologies to avoid unnecessary energy wastage. Numerous studies have been developed proposing electric vehicle (EV) charging frameworks in networks empowered by renewable energy resources. In addition, more focus has recently been directed on incorporating blockchain technology to assure security and transparency in trading systems. However, fewer studies have delved into developing a practical implementation of their solution due to the complexity of the topic. Therefore, this paper thoroughly investigates integrating blockchain technology in electric vehicle charging systems, analyzing the existing practical implementation and their characteristics. It comprises 48 relevant studies between 2017 and 2023, covering the following main research areas: (i) renewable energy-based electric charging systems, (ii) blockchain frameworks used in energy trading, and (iii) performance metrics of simulated and implemented solutions. Results show that blockchain applications in EVs and energy trading systems are highly current, and researchers are actively exploring ways to improve their efficiency and effectiveness.
... Electric vehicle charging introduces uneven stress at stations, leading to potential high wait times, especially in urban areas [3]. On highways, charging station accessibility becomes a concern [4]. The EV-to-charging station ratio is exponentially increasing [5,6] (see Table 1). ...
... In contrast to charging at a CS, [4] uses an activity-based model to forecast PEV movement to identify the best time (temporal) and location (spatio) for the V2V energy trading operation without interfering with the buyer's daily routines. This results in lower costs and less load on the grid. ...
... The malicious PEVs is unaware of which PEV user has been selected until the user begins to participate in the SaPPoA consensus. Furthermore, the stake of PEVs is very minimal for the consensus process and even with large conglomerations it is very difficult to forge a change in block formation.4. Sybil Attack Defence Our ETN system employs multiple ways to guard against Sybil Attack. ...
Electric vehicles (EVs) are the most promising future transportation system, and most of the public and private combustion vehicles used are already being replaced by them. In any urban road network, the number of EVs requesting to be charged will increase exponentially in the coming years beyond the capabilities of charging stations alone. The provision for bi-directional plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) is already a well-established phenomenon in the literature with energy exchange in a to-and-fro manner, as it can facilitate vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)-based charging under an energy trading network (ETN). In this work, we propose a V2V-based energy trading framework for dense urban areas. The network is partitioned based on PEV trip data, battery health, and charge availability. Charging/discharging is modeled using a bipartite graph, with a rational matching variant maximizing PEV and hotspot utility. To execute V2V energy trading safely, blockchain technology is proposed, featuring a consensus protocol addressing scalability. A new consensus algorithm, SaPPoA, considers Sharded A-PBFT and delegated proof-of-authority, providing high scalability through a Chord-DHT-enabled IPFS overlay. This blockchain-based ETN ensures effectiveness and security in a dedicated V2I communication infrastructure. Experiments are used to demonstrate the efficiency and security of SaPPoA and our blockchain-based V2V energy trading platform.
... Internet of Vehicles (IoVs), Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) and Vehicular Energy Networks (VENs) are some of the popular applications of ITS. VENs have gained immense popularity over the past few years due to their attractive applications in different domains like power sector, communication industry, etc., [2]. Moreover, a Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) protocol ensures communication between vehicles in a VEN through On-Board Units (OBUs). ...
In Vehicular Energy Networks (VENs) operating in Smart Health Care Systems (SHaCarS), reputation of vehicles, i.e., ambulances, plays an important role as all functions depend upon it including message sharing, energy trading, etc. Keeping this in view, this paper presents a reputation management scheme. To ensure that the proposed scheme is secure and transparent, Blockchain (BC) technology is used. In the proposed model, the registration of ambulances is performed through a Certificate Authority (CA). Later, a pseudo mechanism is designed using Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA), which ensures conditional anonymity and traceability. The ambulances are provided with the pseudo identities, which are mapped with the real identities to prevent disputes. Besides, the proposed scheme uses a Shamir Secret Sharing (SSS) algorithm to enable distributed revocation in BC based VENs operating in SHaCarS. In addition, the ambulances' reputation information is stored in Interplanetary File System (IPFS) in an efficient manner. The hashes are generated by IPFS upon data storage, which are then stored in BC. The performance evaluation of the proposed system is done via extensive simulations. The results show 18-20% reduction in computational overhead and 35-40% reduction in storage overhead. The proposed system's robustness is tested by inducing the 51% attack and the replay attack. In addition, the security analysis of the smart contract is performed using Oyente. The results show that the system proposed for reputation management in the underlying work is robust and computationally efficient.
... For example, an EV can supply distributed resources such as dynamic traffic information and idle electricity. An attacker could receive omnidirectional communication through the use of wireless channels and open interfaces [6]. Blockchain is hence regarded as a viable solution that possesses two essential characteristics that can help to alleviate security problems. ...
Purpose: In this paper we utilise electric vehicle-based cloud edge (EVCE) computing, it is possible to integrate vehicle contexts in a seamless manner. With the increasing use of electric vehicles (EVs) in V2X, this is likely to become a trend. When it comes to information and energy exchanges, a hybrid cloud/edge computing system with EVs as a potential resource infrastructure presents considerable security challenges. In order to find context-aware vehicular applications, the viewpoints of information and energy interactions are taken into consideration. The use of distributed consensus has resulted in the creation of blockchain-inspired energy and data coins, which use the frequency of data contributions and the amount of energy contributions to demonstrate the proof of work for each coin. When it comes to protecting vehicle interactions, the industry, innovation, and infrastructure sectors of Envision2030 are confronted with a number of different security alternatives. Design/Methodology/Approach: The EVCE computing for mobile cloud architecture to the electric vehicle acting as the edges across the network. The unutilised energy resources, and communication and computational resources of EVs are pooled together and used for other purposes. Mobile cloudlets for electric vehicles are created using VANETs and other interconnected services that gets connected together. When EVs are parked for extended periods of time in different locations, they form a cooperative network of services. Incorporating flexible connected EVs into traditional cloud infrastructures enables contact with remote service providers, local area networks (LANs), as well as other organisations, while operating in the cloud computing mode. Findings/Result: The primary purpose of a blockchain application is to maintain a record of all of the transactions that have been made by the various members of the network. After the submitted transactions have been confirmed and arranged, a block is formed, and the outcomes of the transactions are put on the blockchain as transaction results. Originality/Value: When it comes to transactions, HLF three-stage revolutionary design, dubbed execute-order-validate, is reliant on the preceding steps of the transaction to function properly. Because the actual throughput is close to 100%, a 100 TPS transmit rate is achievable and sustainable Paper Type: Experimental Research
... The proposed work lacks in dealing with the profits made by the charging stations. In [47], the authors addressed problems related to EV charging and discharging. ...
In this paper, a secure energy trading mechanism based on blockchain technology is proposed. The proposed model deals with energy trading problems such as insecure energy trading and inefficient charging mechanisms for electric vehicles (EVs) in a vehicular energy network (VEN). EVs face two major problems: finding an optimal charging station and calculating the exact amount of energy required to reach the selected charging station. Moreover, in traditional trading approaches, centralized parties are involved in energy trading, which leads to various issues such as increased computational cost, increased computational delay, data tempering, and a single point of failure. Furthermore, EVs face various energy challenges, such as imbalanced load supply and fluctuations in voltage level. Therefore, a demand-response (DR) pricing strategy enables EV users to flatten load curves and efficiently adjust the electricity usage. In this work, communication between EVs and aggregators is efficiently performed through blockchain. Moreover, a branching concept is involved in the proposed system, which divides EV data into two different branches: a Fraud Chain (F-chain) and an Integrity Chain (I-chain). The proposed branching mechanism helps solve the storage problem and reduces computational time. Moreover, an attacker model is designed to check the robustness of the proposed system against double-spending and replay attacks. Security analysis of the proposed smart contract is also given in this paper. Simulation results show that the proposed work efficiently reduces the charging cost and time in a VEN.
... In order to solve the aforementioned challenges in VENs, blockchain technology is considered as an effective solution that provides distributed, secure and efficient energy trading [22]- [26]. The concept of blockchain technology was initially brought forward by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 [27]. ...
... Scheduling of vehicles' charging is also brought under consideration in different papers to avoid creating a huge burden on charging entities. The authors in [22] discussed about scheduling the charging of EVs in an efficient manner to address the issue of imbalance between energy demand and supply. Similarly, Zou et al. in [57] propose a charging scheduling mechanism based on game theory for EVs. ...
... Once the message is accepted, duplication in the message content is checked. If different text is found, message is saved; else it is discarded (Lines [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. ...
In this study, a secure and coordinated blockchain based energy trading system for Electric Vehicles (EVs) is presented. The major goals of this study are to provide secure and efficient energy trading between EVs and Charging Stations (CSs), and to ensure efficient coordination between EVs. In this study, a consortium blockchain based energy trading algorithm is presented that handles the essential energy requests, discards the redundant requests and calculates the distance between EVs and CSs. Moreover, Matching Pool (M-Pool) and Pairing Pool (P-Pool) are used to store energy and payment requests. Furthermore, a blockchain based mechanism is proposed for ensuring efficient coordination between EVs at the unsignalized crossroads and intersections. The scheme involves efficient communication between EVs and the timely sharing of important messages. In the proposed work, EVs are authenticated using a Registration Authority (RA) before they become part of a Vehicular Energy Network (VEN). The increase in the number of EVs results in an increase in the number of messages leading to data redundancy issue. To solve the issue, message filtration is performed. The delays incurred in the VEN are also mathematically formulated in this study. In addition, the range anxiety issue is discussed in the proposed work. Besides, a Local Aggregator (LAG) is used as an energy broker to manage energy trading events and transaction validation. To promote the users to take part in the proposed network, they are provided with incentives. The proposed model is tested against selfish mining attack and the security analysis is performed through Oyente tool. The simulation results show that the proposed study excels in providing a secure, efficient and coordinated energy trading and data sharing system for EVs. The results show that due to proper coordination, the risk factor is reduced by almost 25-30%. Moreover, almost 40-50% reduction in time is observed when storing less redundant data.
... Javed et al have established the scheduled charging of EVs in a secured manner with cost minimization using blockchain technique. 18 The great-circle distance equation is utilized to find the shortest distance between the EVs and C S . This distance calculation reduced the traveling time and total charging cost. ...
In today's world, electric vehicles (EVs) play a significant role in transportation automation systems, and these vehicles are the replacement for fossil fuel usage vehicles. An EV generally depends on electric charges where the appropriate usage, charging, and energy management are the key constraints in EVs. To overcome these issues, proper energy management is essential in current EV management. In this paper, a novel blockchain‐based secure energy management has been proposed to provide efficient energy management in transportation automation. Primarily, the EVs have connected to the Internet of Things (IoT) sensors for collecting information like charging level, distance to be traveled, and location of the EVs. This information has been processed by an information center and transferred to the random forest classifier to identify the price of charging. Afterward, it can be transferred to the power scheduling algorithm for finding the nearest charging location (shortest distance) and time of charging to a specific EV. Finally, this information is stored in blocks to mitigate the misleading of EVs and to offer secure price transactions between the users and charging stations. The results manifest that the proposed scheme provides improved EV management with 94.5% of accuracy and maintains 10% lesser communication overhead as compared with existing state‐of‐the‐art techniques.
... The primordial tasks of industries and researchers include retrieving the state of charge and remaining range of an EV battery, scheduling and remotely controlling the charging and discharging processes, optimizing relative pricing costs, and building EV management dashboards. The common application among existing energy studies on IoV are for smart charging or fueling services in vehicular networks using decentralized, private, or consortium Blockchain [285], [286], [289], [291], [293], [296], [297], [416], [466], [467]. As an application example, a simple selection mechanism of the charging unit for EV drivers is developed based on smart contracts [284]. ...
The use of Blockchain technology has recently become widespread. It has emerged as an essential tool in various academic and industrial fields, such as healthcare, transportation, finance, cybersecurity, and supply chain management. It is regarded as a decentralized, trustworthy, secure, transparent, and immutable solution that innovates data sharing and management. This survey aims to provide a systematic review of Blockchain application to intelligent transportation systems in general and the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) in particular. The survey is divided into four main parts. First, the Blockchain technology including its opportunities, relative taxonomies, and applications is introduced; basic cryptography is also discussed. Next, the evolution of Blockchain is presented, starting from the primary phase of pre-Bitcoin (fundamentally characterized by classic cryptography systems), followed by the Blockchain 1.0 phase, (characterized by Bitcoin implementation and common consensus protocols), and finally, the Blockchain 2.0 phase (characterized by the implementation of smart contracts, Ethereum, and Hyperledger). We compared and identified the strengths and limitations of each of these implementations. Then, the state of the art of Blockchain-based IoV solutions (BIoV) is explored by referring to a large and trusted source database from the Scopus data bank. For a well-structured and clear discussion, the reviewed literature is classified according to the research direction and implemented IoV layer. Useful tables, statistics, and analysis are also presented. Finally, the open problems and future directions in BIoV research are summarized.
... EVs sense and transmit the data about their environments using different communication technologies in the smart transportation system [110]. The built-in on board unit allows EVs to interact with each other for information sharing [111,112]. EVs can transmit energy trading requests to other EVs for buying and selling energy, price prediction and optimal energy consumption scheduling [109]. The development of EVs has led the masses towards the smart transportation sector as they are providing various benefits apart from the transportation services. ...
... Luckily, blockchain is a disruptive technology that provides anonymity, trust and security in VEN [112]. However, as discussed in a recent survey [142], extra research efforts are required as blockchain's smart contract is vulnerable to privacy and security issues because its development is still not mature. ...
With the advent of the smart grid (SG), the concept of energy management flourished rapidly and it gained the attention of researchers. Forecasting plays an important role in energy management. In this work, a recurrent neural network, long short term memory (LSTM), is used for electricity price and demand forecasting using big data. This model uses multiple variables as input and forecasts the future values of electricity demand and price. Its hyperparameters are tuned using the Jaya optimization algorithm to improve the forecasting ability. It is named as Jaya LSTM (JLSTM). Moreover, the concept of local energy generation using renewable energy sources is also getting popular. In this work, to implement a hybrid peer to peer energy trading market, a blockchain based system is proposed. It is fully decentralized and allows the market members to interact with each other and trade energy without involving a third party. In addition, in vehicle to grid and vehicle to vehicle energy trading environments, local aggregators perform the role of energy brokers and are responsible for validating the energy trading requests. A solution to find accurate distance with required expenses and time to reach the charging destination is also proposed, which effectively guides electric vehicles (EVs) to reach the relevant charging station and encourages energy trading. Moreover, a fair payment mechanism using a smart contract to avoid financial irregularities is proposed. Apart from this, a blockchain based trust management method for agents in a multi-agent system is proposed. In this system, three objectives are achieved: trust, cooperation and privacy. The trust of agents depends on the credibility of trust evaluators, which is verified using the proposed methods of trust distortion, consistency and reliability. To enhance the cooperation between agents, a tit-3-for-tat repeated game strategy is developed. The strategy is more forgiving than the existing tit-for-tat strategy. It encourages cheating agents to re-establish their trust by cooperating for three consecutive rounds of play. Also, a proof-of-cooperation consensus protocol is proposed to improve agents’ cooperation while creating and validating blocks. The privacy of agents is preserved in this work using the publicly verifiable secret sharing mechanism.
Additionally, a blockchain based edge and cloud system is proposed to resolve the resource management problem of EVs in a vehicular energy network. Firstly, a min-max optimization problem is formulated to construct the proposed entropy based fairness metric for resource allocation. This metric is used to determine whether users have received a fair share of the system’s resources or not. Secondly, a new deep reinforcement learning based content caching and computation offloading approach is designed for resource management of EVs. Lastly, a proof-of-bargaining consensus mechanism is designed for block’s validation and selection of miners using the concept of iterative negotiation. Besides, a survey of electricity load and price forecasting models is presented. The focus of this survey is on the optimization methods, which are used to tune the hyperparameters of the forecasting models. Moreover, this work provides a systematic literature review of scalability issues of the blockchain by scrutinizing across multiple domains and discusses their solutions. Finally, future research directions for both topics are discussed in detail. To prove the effectiveness of the proposed energy management solutions, simulation are performed. The simulation results show that the energy is efficiently managed while ensuring secure trading between energy prosumers and fair resource allocation.
... For distributive data storage, IPFS is used. Each file saved on IPFS has a unique hash value, which is subsequently used to retrieve the file [27]. The system is made scalable and efficient by uploading the historical records on the IPFS. ...
In the underlying work, the problems faced during message dissemination in the conventional Vehicular Energy Networks (VENs) like lack of security, breach of personal identities, absence of trust between vehicle owners, etc., are tackled. In this study, a Blockchain (BC) based announcement system is proposed for VENs to ensure secure and reliable announcement dissemination in the proposed network. The proposed system is a three-layered system comprising message dissemination layer, storage layer and BC layer. In the first layer, all the vehicles are registered through a Certificate Authority (CA), which ensures only the legitimate vehicles become part of the proposed network and interact with each other. Later, in the second layer, the data sent by the vehicles is stored at the artificial intelligence based Interplanetary File System (IPFS), which is incorporated with the Road Side Units (RSUs). This ensures reduction in storage cost and data availability. Besides, vehicle owners’ privacy is ensured by concealing the real identities of the vehicles. Moreover, the hashes of the data stored in the IPFS are stored in BC in the third layer. Also, lightweight trustworthiness verification of the vehicles, reputation based incentivization and concealing predictable trends in vehicles’ reputation scores are performed in the same layer. Overall, the novelty of the proposed work lies in the fact that the proposed system efficiently tackles different problems encountered in the existing systems simultaneously. Through extensive simulations, it is inferred that the computational time is reduced by 15–18% and the storage overhead is reduced by 80–85%, respectively when storing hash of data on the BC network as compared to storing actual data on the network.
