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Aucula magnifica-last instar larvae-hypopharingeal complex (lateral view). epl) proximal-lateral spiracles; sth) hypopharingeal transversal suture; ed) distolateral spiracles; p) palpigerum; fi) spinner; prm) premento; pm) postmento; dst) distipe; MX1-MX2) maxillae stipe bristles; MXa) stipe base pore; st) transversal suture.
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Insect outbreaks are expected to increase in frequency and intensity with projected changes in global climate through direct effects of climate change on insect populations and through disruption of community interactions. Although there is much concern about mean changes in global climate, the impact of climatic variability itself on species inter...
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... The present study has implications for pest management and biological control. Humid environments may increase the development of hosts and possibly increase the fitness of their adult stage, resulting in more frequent and severer pest outbreaks (Stireman et al., 2005, Wetherington et al., 2017. Experiencing long heat waves especially at certain larval stage is detrimental to parasitoids, suggesting that the success of biological control under continuous heat events is stage specific. ...
1. Climate change is projected to increase the likelihood of extreme heat events, but it may also alter humidity levels, leading to the potential for coupled thermal and hydric stress. While increasing frequency and intensity of extreme heat events have been well-documented for their negative effects on species and their interactions, how humidity modulates the impacts of heat waves is currently unknown. 2. We investigated how humidity interacted with heat waves of different timings and durations to affect the life histories in an insect host-parasitoid interaction, comprising the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella , and its endoparasitoid wasp, Venturia canescens . Hosts parasitised as 4th instar larvae and unparasitized hosts were maintained in a high humid (60.8% RH) or low-humid (32.5% RH) environment at a constant temperature of 28℃. They were then exposed to 38℃ heatwaves with a duration of 6 or 72 hours in either the 4th or 5th instar. 3. Humidity and heat waves did not affect the adult emergence of unparasitized hosts, but longer heat waves and lower humidity increased the probability that host adults emerged from parasitized hosts, indicating the negative effect of these conditions on the survival of parasitoids. Furthermore, juvenile development time and body size of hosts and parasitoids responded differently to timing and duration of heat waves, and high humidity decreased larval development time of unparasitized hosts and increased the size of both hosts and parasitoids. In addition, humidity negatively interacted with larval stage and duration of heat waves to affect the size of unparasitized hosts, but this effect was not found in parasitoids. 4. Our results show that humidity modulates the life history of hosts and parasitoids, highlighting the importance of humidity in maintaining host-parasitoid interactions. Humidity should be considered when predicting the impact of temperature extremes on species’ population dynamics and their interactions.
... Climate change can disrupt these interactions by altering the synchrony between pests and their natural enemies, or by favoring the development and survival of certain pest species over others [53]. For instance, warmer temperatures may allow insect pests to complete more generations per year, increasing their population sizes and potential for crop damage [54]. ...
Insects play crucial roles in ecosystems, but their populations are increasingly affected by changing climatic conditions. This review explores the impact of climate change on insect population dynamics, focusing on the effects of temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events on insect development, survival, and distribution. We discuss the mechanisms underlying these effects, including changes in insect physiology, behavior, and interactions with host plants and natural enemies. Additionally, we highlight the potential consequences of altered insect population dynamics for ecosystem services, such as pollination and pest control, and the implications for agricultural productivity and biodiversity conservation. Understanding the complex interplay between climate change and insect populations is essential for predicting future ecological scenarios and developing effective management strategies.
... Early demographic modelling studies predicted that the long-term population responses of plant and animal species with slow life histories are buffered against increasing environmental variation (Morris et al., 2008) because the long-lasting adult stage typical of slower life histories allows these populations to better tolerate changes in the year-to-year variation expected under increasing environmental variation than faster ones. The degree of environmental variation is a useful proxy in demographic models to assess the potential impacts of climate change on populations (Stireman et al., 2005); ...
Variation in life history traits in animals and plants can often be structured along major axes of life history strategies. The position of a species along these axes can inform on their sensitivity to environmental change. For example, species with slow life histories are found to be less sensitive in their long‐term population responses to environmental change than species with fast life histories.
This provides a tantalizing link between sets of traits and population responses to change, contained in a highly generalizable theoretical framework.
Life history strategies are assumed to reflect the outcome of life history tradeoffs that, by their very nature, act at the individual level. Examples include the tradeoff between current and future reproductive success, and allocating energy into growth versus reproduction. But the importance of such tradeoffs in structuring population‐level responses to environmental change remains understudied.
We aim to increase our understanding of the link between individual‐level life history tradeoffs and the structuring of life history strategies across species, as well as the underlying links to population responses to environmental change.
We find that the classical association between lifehistory strategies and population responses to environmental change breaks down when accounting for individual‐level tradeoffs and energy allocation.
Therefore, projecting population responses to environmental change should not be inferred based only on a limited set of species traits.
We summarize our perspective and a way forward in a conceptual framework.
... Recent work analysing longitudinal data on caterpillar-parasitoid abundance suggests declines in parasitoids with global change (Salcido et al., 2022;Stireman et al., 2005). Our results agree with the conclusions of these studies, suggesting decreases in wasp survival with frequent extreme temperature events. ...
Species interactions are expected to change in myriad ways as the frequency and magnitude of extreme temperature events increase with anthropogenic climate change.
The relationships between endosymbionts, parasites and their hosts are particularly sensitive to thermal stress, which can have cascading effects on other trophic levels.
We investigate the interactive effects of heat stress and parasitism on a terrestrial tritrophic system consisting of two host plants (one common, high‐quality plant and one novel, low‐quality plant), a caterpillar herbivore and a specialist parasitoid wasp.
We used a fully factorial experiment to determine the bottom‐up effects of the novel host plant on both the caterpillars' life history traits and the wasps' survival, and the top‐down effects of parasitism and heat shock on caterpillar developmental outcomes and herbivory levels.
Host plant identity interacted with thermal stress to affect wasp success, with wasps performing better on the low‐quality host plant under constant temperatures but worse under heat‐shock conditions.
Surprisingly, caterpillars consumed less leaf material from the low‐quality host plant to reach the same final mass across developmental outcomes.
In parasitized caterpillars, heat shock reduced parasitoid survival and increased both caterpillar final mass and development time on both host plants.
These findings highlight the importance of studying community‐level responses to climate change from a holistic and integrative perspective and provide insight into potential substantial interactions between thermal stress and diet quality in plant–insect systems.
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... The coefficient of variation in precipitation is a standard means of describing seasonality (e.g. www.worldclim.org/data/bioclim.html), and our group has used this as an informative predictor in statistical models (Stireman et al. 2005). Throughout the paper, 'seasonality' refers to the coefficient of variation in precipitation. ...
Insect herbivory can be an important selective pressure and contribute substantially to local plant richness. As herbivory is the result of numerous ecological and evolutionary processes, such as complex insect population dynamics and evolution of plant antiherbivore defenses, it has been difficult to predict variation in herbivory across meaningful spatial scales. In the present work, we characterize patterns of herbivory on plants in a species‐rich and abundant tropical genus ( Piper ) across forests spanning 44° of latitude in the Neotropics. We modeled the effects of geography, climate, resource availability, and Piper species richness on the median, dispersion, and skew of generalist and specialist herbivory. By examining these multiple components of the distribution of herbivory, we were able to determine factors that increase biologically meaningful herbivory at the upper ends of the distribution (indicated by skew and dispersion). We observed a roughly twofold increase in median herbivory in humid relative to seasonal forests, which aligns with the hypothesis that precipitation seasonality plays a critical role in shaping interaction diversity within tropical ecosystems. Site level variables such as latitude, seasonality, and maximum Piper richness explained the positive skew in herbivory at the local scale (plot level) better for assemblages of Piper congeners than for a single species. Predictors that varied between local communities, such as resource availability and diversity, best explained the distribution of herbivory within sites, dampening broad patterns across latitude and climate and demonstrating why generalizations about gradients in herbivory have been elusive. The estimated population means, dispersion, and skew of herbivory responded differently to abiotic and biotic factors, illustrating the need for careful studies to explore distributions of herbivory and their effects on forest diversity.
... Biological control provided by the natural enemies of D. arcanella presented a strong positive correlation with the population of the pest insect and a negative correlation with the temperature; this agrees with studies that report that these biological control agents respond quickly to changes in the population dynamics of their host and to climatic variations [30,33]. Additionally, parasitoid insects from the Braconidae, Chalcididae, and Ichneumonidae families have been reported as important biological controllers not only in the Depressariidae family but also in other Lepidoptera [22,[34][35][36][37][38]. ...
Colombia currently has 595,722 oil palm-cultivated hectares, but production is declining due to phytophagous insects feeding mainly on the leaves; one of them, Durrantia arcanella, is a recurring pest in the northern palm zone of Colombia, for which we do not have all the essential information. Therefore, it was proposed to determine its biology, foliar consumption rate, population fluctuation, and relationship with climatic variables and to identify its main natural enemies in the department of Cesar. The life cycle under laboratory conditions, including adult longevity, was 48.0 ± 10.1 days, the egg stage lasted 8.0 ± 0.7 days, the larva stage lasted 24.2 ± 6.2 days, the pre-pupa stage lasted 1.5 ± 0.5 days, the pupa stage lasted 7.1 ± 0.9 and the adult had a longevity of 7.2 ± 2.0 days. At the end of the larval period, it was determined that they individually consumed 8.2 ± 5.3 cm2 of leaflets. Correlation was found between D. arcanella population dynamics and climatic factors such as temperature and relative humidity, likewise with natural enemies.
... Rising temperature, however, is just one axis of global climate change, and the disruption of precipitation patterns may be an even greater threat (Wagner, 2020). It appears that precipitation regimes, particularly extreme events, play a significant role in declining insect populations (Forister et al., 2018;Salcido et al., 2020;Stireman et al., 2005). While temperature and precipitation are two different facets of climate, they often covary and specific combinations may be particularly adverse for insects (Dai, 2011;Harvey et al., 2022). ...
Climate change is contributing to declines of insects through rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and an increasing frequency of extreme events. The impacts of both gradual and sudden shifts in weather patterns are realized directly on insect physiology and indirectly through impacts on other trophic levels. Here, we investigated direct effects of seasonal weather on butterfly occurrences and indirect effects mediated by plant productivity using a temporally intensive butterfly monitoring dataset, in combination with high‐resolution climate data and a remotely sensed indicator of plant primary productivity. Specifically, we used Bayesian hierarchical path analysis to quantify relationships between weather and weather‐driven plant productivity on the occurrence of 94 butterfly species from three localities distributed across an elevational gradient. We found that snow pack exerted a strong direct positive effect on butterfly occurrence and that low snow pack was the primary driver of reductions during drought. Additionally, we found that plant primary productivity had a consistently negative effect on butterfly occurrence. These results highlight mechanisms of weather‐driven declines in insect populations and the nuances of climate change effects involving snow melt, which have implications for ecological theories linking topographic complexity to ecological resilience in montane systems.
... Biological control provided by the natural enemies of D. arcanella presented a strong positive correlation with the population of the pest insect and a negative correlation with the temperature; this agrees with studies that report that these biological control agents respond quickly to changes in the population dynamics of their host and to climatic variations [30,33]. Additionally, parasitoid insects from the Braconidae, Chalcididae, and Ichneumonidae families have been reported as important biological controllers not only in the Depressariidae family but also in other Lepidoptera [22,[34][35][36][37][38]. ...
Durrantia arcanella is a recurring pest insect of oil palm in Colombia. Because the biology and ecology of D. arcanella are unknown, it was proposed to determine the life cycle and foliar consumption under laboratory conditions. Furthermore, through sequential sampling for two and a half years, its population fluctuation and natural enemies were determined in Agustín Codazzi and El Copey (Cesar, Colombia). Also, temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity were registered. The life cycle of D. arcanella lasted 48.0 ± 10.1 days, the egg 8.0 ± 0.7 days, larva 24.2 ± 6.2 days, pre-pupa 1.5 ± 0.5 days, pupa 7.1 ± 0.9 days, and adult 7.2 ± 2.0 days. The larvae consumed 8.2 ± 5.3 cm2 of leaflets. Correlations were found between the population fluctuation in D. arcanella and the temperature in El Copey (ρ = −0.45; p < 0.0043), relative humidity in Codazzi (ρ = 0.33; p < 0.034), and with the natural control in both locations ((ρ = 0, 61; p < 0.000044) and (ρ = 0.42; p < 0.006)). These results suggest monitoring the pest populations in the second semester of the year and show the importance of promoting native natural enemies.
... In various host-parasitoid systems, bristle flies have been shown to play an essential role in regulating their hosts' populations, limiting caterpillar outbreaks and thus mitigating defoliation events. Rearing programmes of Lepidoptera and other phytophagous insects conducted in temperate and tropical regions have shown that bristle flies parasitism rates average 7 to 15% among host taxa (with peaks above 50% for particular host species), often exceeding parasitism rates for all parasitoid wasps combined (34,42). The loss of such specialized parasitoids can be especially problematic for ecosystems sensitive to climate change, if there are no other mechanisms to control the density of herbivore insects, leading to a risk of herbivory outbreaks (43). ...
Elevational gradients are characterized by strong environmental changes within small geographical distances, providing important insights on the response of biological communities to climate change. Mountain biodiversity is particularly sensitive to climate change, given the limited capacity to colonize new areas and the competition from upshifting lowland species. Knowledge on the impact of climate change on mountain insect communities is patchy, but elevation is known to influence parasitic interactions which control insect communities and functions within ecosystems. We analyzed a European dataset of bristle flies, a parasitoid group which regulates insect herbivory in both managed and natural ecosystems. Our dataset spans six decades and multiple elevational bands, and we found marked elevational homogenization in the host specialization of bristle fly species through time. The proportion of specialized parasitoids has increased by ca. 70% at low elevations, from 17 to 29%, and has decreased by ca. 20% at high elevations, from 48 to 37%. As a result, the strong elevational gradient in bristle fly specialization observed in the 1960s has become much flatter over time. As climate warming is predicted to accelerate, the disappearance of specialized parasitoids from high elevations might become even faster. This parasitoid homogenization can reshape the ecological function of mountain insect communities, increasing the risk of herbivory outbreak at high elevations. Our results add to the mounting evidence that symbiotic species might be especially at risk from climate change: Monitoring the effects of these changes is urgently needed to define effective conservation strategies for mountain biodiversity.
... Thus, because they precede species loss, interaction extinctions affect the functionality of trophic networks faster than the extinction of individual species do. Several studies have demonstrated that interactions are particularly sensitive to anthropogenic drivers that disrupt the sympatry of interacting species, synchrony of interaction species (e.g., parasitoid-prey phenologies), or the intensity of interactions by reducing the abundance of keystone species, all of which result in the functional degradation of trophic networks (Stireman et al. 2005;Tylianakis et al. 2008Tylianakis et al. , 2010Rosenblatt & Schmitz 2016). Despite the ongoing accumulation of evidence indicating that tropical herbivorous insect-enemy communities are currently suffering rapid declines in complexity and stability as a result of increasing temperatures (Bale et al. 2002;Stireman et al. 2005;García-Robledo et al. 2016;Stoks et al. 2017;Wetherington et al. 2017;Pincebourde & Suppo 2016;Lister & Garcia 2018;Salcido et al. 2020), few studies have investigated how large-scale climatic oscillations affect the capacity of parasitoids and predators to attack herbivore prey and for prey to defend themselves in tropical communities (e.g., Bannerman et al. 2011;Sheldon 2019;Harvey et al. 2020). ...
... Several studies have demonstrated that interactions are particularly sensitive to anthropogenic drivers that disrupt the sympatry of interacting species, synchrony of interaction species (e.g., parasitoid-prey phenologies), or the intensity of interactions by reducing the abundance of keystone species, all of which result in the functional degradation of trophic networks (Stireman et al. 2005;Tylianakis et al. 2008Tylianakis et al. , 2010Rosenblatt & Schmitz 2016). Despite the ongoing accumulation of evidence indicating that tropical herbivorous insect-enemy communities are currently suffering rapid declines in complexity and stability as a result of increasing temperatures (Bale et al. 2002;Stireman et al. 2005;García-Robledo et al. 2016;Stoks et al. 2017;Wetherington et al. 2017;Pincebourde & Suppo 2016;Lister & Garcia 2018;Salcido et al. 2020), few studies have investigated how large-scale climatic oscillations affect the capacity of parasitoids and predators to attack herbivore prey and for prey to defend themselves in tropical communities (e.g., Bannerman et al. 2011;Sheldon 2019;Harvey et al. 2020). Thus, prey-predator interactions, and the adaptive traits that mediate them, are a major but neglected component of biodiversity loss that must be considered in order to assess the 'health' of ecosystems and to define critical indicators providing early diagnosis of environmental threats to community trophic functions (Tylianakis et al. 2010). ...
... Our findings support the idea that the synchronised phenologies linking parasitoid to their host are highly susceptible to the climatic variations associated with the ENSO cycle. Because they directly affect host emergence time and development rate, increasing temperatures, and associated droughts, have the potential to desynchronise both host and parasitoid phenologies and thus heighten the risk of an herbivore outbreak (Visser & Both 2005;Stireman et al. 2005;Hance et al. 2007;Parmesan 2006;Dyer et al. 2013). ...
Little is known about the effects of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on tropical insect communities, even though they are suffering rapid declines in complexity and stability due to climate change. We explore the impact of fluctuations in local climate imposed by ENSO on the performance of herbivore defences mediating enemy interactions. In a widespread rainforest edge community, we quantified the mortality caused by five enemy guilds on the immature stages of the herbivorous beetle, Acromis sparsa . ENSO was a significant determinant of beetle mortality. During warmer, drier El Niño years, the survival of beetles decreased. This was due to increased egg parasitism by wasps, which reduced hatching. Additionally, ant predation on beetle larvae increased. Flies and wasps were in competition for larval prey in wetter, cooler La Niña years. Experimental removal of maternal guards or chemical shields revealed which ENSO-related parameters predicted larval mortality. Guarding was most effective against social wasps in La Niña, whereas shields proved most effective in El Niño. Two ENSO-related defence–enemy breakdowns occurred: (1) decoupling whereby the efficacy of a narrow defensive adaptation was reduced to increase mortality, and (2) mismatching whereby the resistance of a narrow defensive adaptation against non-targeted enemies was further reduced to increase mortality. These results highlight that defence efficacy against natural enemies can vary predictably with biotic and abiotic environmental conditions. ENSO events will increase breakdowns in defence-mediated interactions, shifts in competition among enemies, and species loss.
