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The increasing awareness of the undesirable environmental impact of cement-based products has led to rethinking earth construction within the digitally mechanised framework of Industry 4.0. The attempts to mechanise earth construction started nearly a decade ago, yet, the past four years have seen a surge in the intensity of research on the advance...
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... Alrededor del mundo, las industrias han venido incursionando hacia la transformación digital, la cual se ha acelerado en diferentes sectores industriales por medio del crecimiento de tecnologías como la robotización inteligente, uso de sensores, instrumentación industrial, la manufactura digital, inteligencia artificial y aprendizaje asistido por máquina (en ingles machine learning). Esto ha generado que las empresas y los diferentes procesos industriales necesiten rápidamente adaptarse hacia la transformación digital y el avance tecnológico para ser más competentes en su sector, el término con el cual han agrupado lo mencionado anteriormente es industria 4.0 [1], [2]. Dentro de las tecnologías más populares en las industrias 4.0 está la impresión 3D, también conocida como manufactura aditiva, la cual se ha hecho popular en muchos sectores y en especial en el sector de la construcción civil. ...
... El (ii) método seco involucran la compactación del suelo sin la adición de agua (rammed earth construction en inglés). Entre estos se encuentra la tierra apisonada, que ocasionalmente se le añade cal y/o cemento para estabilizar la mezcla [2]. Los muros de tierra desempeñan funciones tanto portantes como no portantes y su grosor varía según el tipo de construcción, la función del muro y las cargas previstas. ...
En los últimos años, se ha generado gran interés en la construcción sostenible, lo que ha llevado a un mayor interés en la impresión 3D o manufactura aditiva. Sin embargo, el uso de esta técnica con materiales convencionales no es suficiente para disminuir el gran impacto ambiental que genera el sector de la construcción. Aunque la mayoría de las investigaciones y avances están centralizadas en la impresión 3D de concreto Portland, esta revisión se ha trabajado orientada hacia la impresión 3D de materiales de construcción basados en suelos y arcillas, los con los cuales se puede proporcionar un enfoque asequible (ya que es un material localmente disponible en muchas regiones del planeta), sostenible ambientalmente, y con bajo costo, lo cual es altamente beneficioso para la construcción de viviendas. Este documento se ha orientado hacia la búsqueda de literatura científica y prototipos que se han elaborado utilizando materiales ancestrales, como son suelos-arcillas-arena-fibras como paja y agua, para elaboración de piezas constructivas tipo muros o adobes impresos en 3D. El objetivo de este documento es cerrar la brecha sobre la utilización de mezclas basadas en suelos, que, aunque parezcan totalmente estudiadas por varios siglos, a la fecha su aplicación en impresión 3D es reducida. Reajustes en propiedades de las mezclas de suelos como la fluidez para el bombeo o extrusión, edificabilidad y buen tiempo de trabajo, son variables que se reportan en este documento. Además, en esta revisión se describen las mezclas que han sido desarrolladas para impresión 3D a partir de suelos y arcillas, y las principales características que se han encontrado. Finalmente, se presentan los desafíos que aún persisten para que las mezclas puedan aplicarse a una escala industrial masiva. Palabras clave: manufactura aditiva; impresión 3D de suelos; materiales basados en tierra; adobe; cob.
... According to Gomaa et al. [43], the production of rammed earth walls typically involves five steps: 1) formwork assembly, 2) material deposition, 3) robotic ramming, 4) demolding, and 5) transportation of completed elements to storage. The duration of this entire process can range from approximately 8 to 12 h per cubic meter [44], and it heavily relies on the expertise and proficiency of the individuals involved. ...
This paper compares conventional earth construction with innovative additive techniques. The goal is to assess the sustainability of employing digital fabrication in earth construction, with a particular emphasis on analyzing the Global Warming Potential. The research also investigates how printing speed and resolution impact environmental outcomes. Using a Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Assessment model, the analysis reveals that integrating digital fabrication leads to an overall increase in environmental impact across all cases studied. The environmental impact of 1m3 of digitally fabricated earth-based material is nearly double that of conventional earth
techniques, ranging from 65 to 20 kgCO2eq/m3 compared to 20–40 kgCO2eq/m3. This emphasizes the urgent need to reduce material usage in digitally fabricated structures. Higher system resolution leads to increased environmental impacts and may require the same construction time as conventional methods. These findings
underscore the importance of carefully weighing the trade-offs between the benefits of digital fabrication and its potential environmental drawbacks.
... Technological innovation is driving the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Gomaa et al., 2023;Singh et al., 2022), advanced building technologies have significantly changed the operations of the architecture, engineering and construction industry in US (Blinn & Issa, 2022). Meantime, traditional energy consumption inevitably leads to the release of a large amount of carbon emissions. ...
Achieving carbon neutrality is essential for global sustainable development. In China, fostering high-quality development represents the primary strategy for enhancing energy conservation and sustaining economic growth. Despite its significance, the construction industry—a major consumer of energy and a substantial source of carbon emissions—has not been extensively studied. This research evaluates the high-quality development of construction industry (HDCI) in China and seeks to chart a course for its advancement. Initially, it constructs an evaluation index system and utilizes the composite weighting method to assess the industry's development quality across provinces from 2008 to 2020. Subsequently, it applies exploratory spatial analysis and Markov chain models to uncover the spatiotemporal patterns and evolutionary trends of HDCI. The study further examines the spatial heterogeneity of factors influencing spatiotemporal differentiation by employing a geographically and temporally weighted regression model. The findings reveal that (1) the overall index of high-quality development in the construction sector is improving, with the green energy-saving index ranking the highest among six dimensions. (2) Significant regional disparities exist, with the eastern and central regions outperforming the western and northeastern areas. (3) The focal point of high-quality development is shifting towards the southwest, indicating strong spatial correlation within HDCI. High-value provinces exhibit a more potent positive spillover effect compared to the negative impact of lower-value provinces. (4) The driving factors, including financial expenditure urbanization, energy consumption structure, and technological innovation capacity, show spatial heterogeneity. This suggests that regional industries should pursue tailored development strategies based on local characteristics. Based on these insights, the study proposes policy recommendations to foster HDCI in China, advocating for approaches that align with regional strengths and conditions.
... Building on traditions thousands of years in the making, rammed earth is in the early stages of automation, with researchers engaging computer-controlled pneumatic rammers and factory-style assembly lines to produce structural earth modules [21,24]. A notable example is the Kräuterzentrum designed by Herzog and de Meuron and Martin Rauche, where prefabricated rammed earth wall sections were assembled on site. ...
... Robotic rammed earth forming systems with "active formwork" are under development [24], while systems like Echale's hydraulic "Ecoblock" maker are already widely used. (Images: ITE/TU Braunschweig, Echale). ...
Additive manufacturing with earth is an emerging, though largely uncharacterized, approach to fabricating low embodied carbon structures. It is critical to establish methods for processing 3D printed, locally sourced earthen materials in different environments to validate large-scale earthen additive manufacturing as a tool to address a growing global need for housing and climate-resilient architecture. We present a set of reproducible design guidelines for sourcing, processing, and characterizing locally sourced earthen materials. Soil type, moisture and fiber content, particle size distribution, and unconfined compressive strength are determined. Additionally, novel bridging, cantilevering, and hydrostatic pressure (formwork) testing methods are developed to link design constraints for full-scale printed structures to material characteristics. Modular and conformally printed full-scale wall prototypes are printed with a 6-axis robotic system. A Life Cycle Assessment of the prototypical earth printing system is conducted, establishing a point of comparison to the climate impact of other construction systems, including rammed earth, concrete masonry units, and 3D printed mortar. We demonstrate that printing highly functional building elements with repeatable mechanical characteristics is possible using locally sourced earth mixtures. By illustrating a range of reproducible material and geometric possibilities, we expand the design space of additive earth and its applications.
... Usually, the resulting walls have large thickness ranging from 30 cm to 80 cm. Soils suitable for construction purposes are subsoils, excavated at least 1 meter below the surface (Gomaa et al. 2023), as topsoils can be sensitive to shrinkage and decay (Morel et al. 2021). The average composition of the soil used in RE constructions is a mixture of clay, sand, gravel, sometimes also fibers with different proportions (Ávila et al. 2021(Ávila et al. , Gomaa et al. 2023. ...
The building and construction sector is one of the most harmful industries to the environment, responsible for producing high levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, energy consumption, and waste. Rammed earth, a traditional building technology is deemed as a promising solution to tackle these challenges. In addition, the low level of skill required for rammed earth buildings paves the way for self-built activities. This paper presents the preliminary findings of an ongoing research study focused on the rammed earth construction technique. The primary objective is to assess its sustainability and circularity within the context of Europe and the Mediterranean. The methodology employed is based on an analysis of rammed earth techniques and a review of relevant regulations related to the selected context. The analysis includes case studies of contemporary European rammed earth buildings. They aim to illustrate possible design strategies that incorporate rammed earth alongside well-established construction technologies. These case studies also shed light on how the integration of various construction technologies introduces circularity variables into buildings, thereby influencing their overall sustainability. These variables are contingent upon the techniques, technologies, and performance characteristics of the selected building elements. As a result of this analysis, the paper initiates a discussion on the role that rammed earth constructions can play in the development of sustainable hybrid buildings.
... Automation and mechanization of manufacturing processes have played a key role in the advancement of industry (GOMAA et al., 2023). In this context, Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines have been widely used to increase the efficiency and precision of cutting, drilling and machining operations (MOREIRA, 2022). ...
The design and construction of CNC plasma cutting machines plays a key role in modernizing and optimizing industrial processes, providing significant benefits in terms of precision, efficiency and versatility. This technology makes it possible to cut a wide variety of materials, mainly metals, enabling the creation of complex, high-quality parts. The aim of this work was to develop a small CNC (Computer Numerical Control) plasma cutting machine for teaching purposes. The machine was designed using SolidWorks software, ensuring greater precision in the choice of CNC components. The CNC was moved in three axes, driven by four Nema 23 stepper motors (one for the x-axis, two for the y-axis and one for the z-axis). Control was via a USB microcontroller which received the cutting commands from a user-friendly software interface, Mach3. A Cut 60 inverter plasma cutting machine was used to generate the cutting plasma. With regard to the plasma cutting process, initial tests were carried out by varying the operating parameters, such as plasma current, cutting speed and torch height. The results showed that the movement of the CNC in the x, y and z axes was partly satisfactory. However, it is necessary to calibrate the y-axis, as the dimensions were not regular when cutting a circumference. Regarding the operation of the plasma, it is still necessary to adjust the parameters to optimize the cutting of metal sheets with different thicknesses.
... The use of rammed earth in old and new constructions(Gomma et al., 2023) ...
This study meticulously examines the impact of image processing techniques in industrial quality control applications. The software developed in LabVIEW to detect quality defects in metal parts from mass production lines can perform highly precise measurements such as hole diameter and edge inspections with an accuracy of 0.05 mm. As a result of the conducted tests, the parts have been successfully classified as NOK and OK. This achievement marks a significant step towards elevating the quality standards in the industrial sector, ensuring customer satisfaction, and optimizing production processes. The developed software stands out as a powerful tool in the industrial sector to enhance quality standards, ensure customer satisfaction, and optimize production processes. This study demonstrates that image processing techniques can be effectively utilized in quality control applications, leading to substantial improvements in industrial processes. These advancements provide a valuable contribution to enhancing the competitiveness of businesses in the industrial sector.
... Figure 5 shows the slab formwork and column formwork after the casting and demolding. The column formwork is successfully reused in a subsequent rammed earth project for construction (Gomaa et al., 2023). Beyond their reusability, both the 3D printed and CNC machined formwork components are recyclable. ...
Free-form architectural design has gained significant interest in modern architectural practice. Due to their visually appealing nature and inherent structural efficiency, free-form shells have become increasingly popular in architectural applications. Recently, topology optimization has been extended to shell structures, aiming to generate shell designs with ultimate structural efficiency. However, despite the huge potential of topology optimization to facilitate new design for shells, its architectural applications remain limited due to complexity and lack of clear procedures. This paper presents four design strategies for optimizing free-form shells targeting architectural applications. First, we propose a topology-optimized ribbed shell system to generate free-form rib layouts possessing improved structure performance. A reusable and recyclable formwork system is developed for their effective and sustainable fabrication. Second, we demonstrate that topology optimization can be combined with funicular form-finding techniques to generate a rich variety of elegant designs, offering new design possibilities. Third, we offer cost-effective design solutions using modular components for free-form shells by combining surface planarization and periodic constraint. Finally, we integrate topology optimization with user-defined patterns on free-form shells to facilitate aesthetic expression, exemplified by the Voronoi pattern. The presented strategies can facilitate the usage of topology optimization in shell designs to achieve high-performance and innovative solutions for architectural applications.
... Earth Construction has incited interest among researchers due to it uses a natural and readily available local materials, is easily transported to the site, and requires minimal processing, which results in low carbon emission (Mohamed Gomaa et al., [25]). ...
... Types of earth construction available are includes rammed earth wall, light earth, adobe blocks, compressed earth blocks, and cob (Mohamed Gomaa et al., [25]). The ancient well-known earthbased building material in the world is rammed earth, which is made by mixing dry soil and water before being compacted in successive lifts inside a formwork to make structures (Ciancio and Beckett, [9] & Quoc-Bao Bui & Morel [31]). ...
... The procedure of this construction started with identifying locally sourced subsoil. Mohamed Gomaa et al., [25] suggested, to ensure the quality of the mixture, testing should be done either onsite or in a lab before beginning the operation. Damp mixture of the subsoil should be compacted into a temporary formwork before the next layer is applied (Ciancio et al., [9]). ...
In the dynamic realm of sustainable construction, innovation in materials is a compelling strategy to overcome the limitations of conventional products. This study delves into two extraordinary case studies - Rammed Earth and Solar Pavement - to uncover their successes and potential impact. It navigates through a landscape of innovative materials, from research to real-world implementations, focusing on materials that harness nature's gifts and promote eco-consciousness, reducing carbon footprints. This investigation employs a comprehensive methodology, analysing scholarly manifestos, journal chronicles, historical documents, and credible references. It explores material identity, utility, attributes, virtues, vices, construction prowess, industry impact, journalistic coverage, ecological footprints, societal engagement, and tangible projects. Comparisons are made based on sustainability impact, economic viability, and current trends. The findings reveal that Rammed Earth stands as a sustainability luminary, leaving a minimal environmental footprint. In contrast, Solar Pavement holds intriguing promise, requiring further research, development, and audacious pilot endeavours to fully unleash its potential. This saga offers valuable insights into the strengths and weaknesses of these avant-garde materials. Armed with this knowledge, decision-makers in sustainable construction can lead us towards a harmonious future for our built environment.
... Recent developments focused on the automation of existing production techniques, but also on exploring the design repertoire through computational design tools, material properties, and fabrication processes (Dörfler et al. 2014;Kloft et al. 2019;Heringer, Howe, and Rauch 2019;Gomaa et al. 2022). In particular, they have explored the design potential for compression-only earth construction in shells, walls, rammed earth vaults, and arched floor systems (Gomaa, Xie, and Wen 2023;Ferretti et al. 2022). ...
As natural resources become increasingly scarce, it becomes crucial to seek solutions that promote circularity and sustainability. Embracing local materials and reinterpreting traditional architectural systems can help align the design of construction systems with these principles. Computational design methods can play a pivotal role in facilitating a transformative approach that supports the development of alternative material systems, their industrialization, and widespread adoption. This paper presents a computational design method for the structural development of a willow-earth composite construction system, aiming to advance the implementation of fully circular and waste-free building techniques through digital construction technologies. The research uses structural principles as a guiding factor for the development of the material system, and employs an integrative co-design approach to manage the reciprocal relationships between structural performance, material system behavior, and fabrication processes. By capitalizing on the advantageous interaction between willow and earth, a material system based on compression tension dualism is developed. This is achieved through digital studies of mechanical properties and computational analyses that inform the distribution, orientation, and gradation of the materials. The research incorporates feedback loops across multiple disciplines, both digital and analog, enabling a simultaneous consideration of the underlying correlations. The research showcases the potential to expand the design possibilities for structures constructed with earth and willow composite materials. Through a distinctive digital workflow, it presents new avenues for sustainable and circular construction methods. The outcomes are illustrated through digital studies and a full-scale research demonstrator, providing tangible evidence of the research's advancements.
