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Areas affected in the brain during depression. The areas affected in the brain include the temporal and frontal lobes and the cingulate gyrus of the limbic system.
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The present study aimed to review major depression, including its types, epidemiology, association with different diseases status and treatments, as well as its correlation with the current COVID-19 pandemic. Mental depression is a common disorder that affects most individuals at one time or another. During depression, there are changes in mood and...
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Context 1
... (1). Although depression has been extensively studied, its mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Norepinephrine and serotonin are two neurotransmitters considered to be the most efficient in mental depression (2). The areas in the brain supposed to be affected include the temporal and frontal lobes and the cingulate gyrus of the limbic system ( Fig. 1) (3). The symptoms of depression are mostly mild and unpredicted either by patients or even physicians. The typical types of depression, whether major or minor, have only symptoms of depression (4). However, bipolar and cyclothymic types are accompanied by manic symptoms (5). According to the American Psychiatric Associations of the ...
Citations
... The mice of the antibiotic-induced groups AMA, AMB, AMC, AMD, and AME showed different degrees of changes in depressionlike behavior. However, in view of relevant studies, the contents of BDNF, NE, and 5-HT in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of depressed individuals are reduced (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021;Rana et al., 2021), and the contents of ACTH and CORT in the serum are increased (Mannel et al., 1997;Choi et al., 2018). Therefore, according to the results of neurobiological factor detection and depression-like behavior, the effects of antibiotic-induced depression of antibiotic mixtures C and E were not as efficient as the effects of antibiotic mixtures A, B, and D. ...
Many research studies focus on intestinal microbiota-related depression induced by the usage of antibiotics, but the use of antibiotics is fairly different. To construct an effective antibiotic-induced depression mice model and explore the effect of intestinal microbiota in antibiotic-induced depression, we used several kinds of antibiotic mixtures to induce mice depression and used depression-related behavioral tests and neurobiological factors to evaluate the construction of the antibiotic-induced depression mice model. SPSS statistical software was used to analyze the above data, and the optimal model was selected according to the stability of the results and the simplicity of the modeling methods. Metagenomic analysis and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) of intestinal microbiota from antibiotic-induced depression mice were performed to analyze the effect of intestinal microbiota. The results showed that antibiotic mixture A (1.25 μg/mL natamycin, 5 mg/mL neomycin sulfate, and 5 mg/mL bacitracin), antibiotic mixture B (24 mg/mL bacitracin, 24 mg/mL neomycin sulfate, 9.6 mg/mL ampicillin, 4.8 mg/mL meropenem, and 1.47 mg/mL vancomycin), and antibiotic solution D (only containing 5 mg/mL neomycin sulfate) could induce depression-like behavior in mice. By using these antibiotics, the concentrations of norepinephrine (NE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in mice hippocampus and prefrontal cortex tissues were significantly decreased. All the above results were consistent with those of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) depression mice. The FMT results showed that fecal microbiota from antibiotic-induced depressed mice transplanted into normal mice (8 weeks-old male C57BL/6J SPF mice) also could induce depression-like behavior and cause similar changes in neurobiological factors. Metagenomic analysis showed that the community structure of microbiota in the intestinal tract of antibiotic-induced depression mice was significantly different from that in control mice, the intestinal microbiota species diversity in antibiotic-induced depression mice was lower, the lipoic acid metabolism pathway was significantly activated, and the abundance of functional gene lipA was explicitly increased. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) further verified the abundance of enriched bacteria in the intestinal microbiota of antibiotic-induced depression mice. In summary, the specific antibiotic mixtures can induce depression by causing changes in intestinal microbiota in mice. Antibiotic-induced depressed mice show differences in intestinal microbiota abundance, high enrichment of the unique metabolic pathway, and the functional gene.
... Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a mood disturbance influenced by different emotions and feelings. Typically, MDD may feature feelings of sadness and helplessness, reduced or lost interest in daily activities (anhedonia), lack of motivation, depressed mood, irritability, and even suicidal ideation [1,2]. ...
Major depressive disorder is a severe mood disorder characterized by different emotions and feelings. This study investigated the antidepressant activity of the phenylpropanoid methyleugenol (ME) in adult female mice exposed to a stress model induced by dexamethasone. The animals were randomly divided into groups containing eight animals and were pre-administered with dexamethasone (64 μg/kg subcutaneously). After 165 and 180 min, they were treated with ME (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg intraperitoneally) or imipramine (10 mg/kg intraperitoneally) after 45 min and 30 min, respectively; they were then submitted to tests which were filmed. The videos were analyzed blindly. In the tail suspension test, ME (50 mg/kg) increased latency and reduced immobility time. In the splash test, ME (50 mg/kg) decreased grooming latency and increased grooming time. In the open field, there was no statistical difference for the ME groups regarding the number of crosses, and ME (50 mg/kg) increased the number of rearing and time spent in the center. Regarding in silico studies, ME interacted with dopaminergic D1 and α1 adrenergic pathway receptors and with tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor. In the in vivo evaluation of the pathways of action, the antidepressant potential of ME (50 mg/kg) was reversed by SCH23390 (4 mg/kg intraperitoneally) dopaminergic D1 receptor, Prazosin (1 mg/kg intraperitoneally) α1 adrenergic receptor, and PCPA (4 mg/kg intraperitoneally) tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor. Our findings indicate that ME did not alter with the locomotor activity of the animals and shows antidepressant activity in female mice with the participation of the D1, α1 and serotonergic systems.
... Depression -the set of symptoms associated with feelings of sadness and a state of despondency that affect behavior and can lead to suicide attempts or other maladaptive behaviors -is one of the most prevalent psychological disorders (Usuga-Jerez et al., 2021;World Health Organization, 2014). Depression affects approximately 264 million people of different ages (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), the depressive disorders include major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder or dysthymia, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, substance-or medication-induced depressive disorder, depressive disorder due to another medical condition, other specified depressive disorders, and nonspecific depressive disorders (APA, 2013;González-Herrero et al., 2019). ...
The objectives of this article were to analyze the occurrence of stressful life events (SLE), to establish profiles based on the said events by means of classification through cluster analysis, to establish the relationship between the groups obtained and the presence of distress, and to analyze which SLE seem to have had a greater impact on the mental health of 136 women victims of gender violence living in a context of extreme poverty in Nicaragua. The results showed the existence of high levels of depression and anxiety, especially within the group that suffered abuse in their childhood, and that economic problems, the death of people in the family environment and suicide attempts seem to be the SLE that have the greatest influence on the levels reached for the identification of such depressive and anxiety symptoms, above the abuse suffered throughout their lives. In conclusion, learning about SLE in contexts where their occurrence is frequent is essential for intervention with women for whom adversity has become chronic.
... As another consequence of M1 microglia activation, the excessive release of proinflammatory cytokines may damage neurotransmitter function and neuroplasticity through astrocyte dysfunction, which results in monoamine synaptic deficits (Yohn et al., 2016) and glutamate neurotoxicity (Haroon et al., 2017). The reduction in NE and 5-HT is the hallmark of major depression (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). NE can inhibit the transcription of proinflammatory cytokines and promote the production of neurotrophic factors (O'Donnell et al., 2012). ...
Background
Clinical prevalence of major depression is higher in women than men, while the psychoneuroimmunological mechanisms underlying the differences between the two sexes are not fully understood.
Methods
The present study explored sex differences in the behaviors and depressive pathological mechanisms induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). Depression- and anxiety-like behaviors were assessed by the sucrose preference test (SPT), force swimming test (FST), open field test (OFT), and elevated plus-maze (EPM). The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to measure cytokine concentrations, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to measure monoamine neurotransmitters and metabolite contents, and real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and western blotting (WB) were used to measure glial parameters in the hippocampus.
Results
Under control conditions, female rats exhibited shorter immobility times in the FST, lower interferon (IFN)-γ, and interleukin (IL)-4 levels in the hippocampus, lower norepinephrine (NE) and homovanillic acid (HVA), and higher p75 and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) expression than male rats. CUMS markedly reduced rat body weight gain, sucrose preference, locomotor activity, number of entries into the central zone and rearing in the OFT, as well as the number of entries into and time spent in open arms of the EPM; however, CUMS increased the immobility times of the rats of both sexes in the FST. Interestingly, more pronounced changes in sucrose preference and locomotor activity were observed in female rats than in males. Consistently, CUMS-increased glucocorticoid concentration, M1 microglial marker CD11b, and peripheral IL-1β and IL-4, while decreased hippocampal IL-10, serotonin (5-HT), dopamine metabolite 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), and norepinephrine metabolite 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG) were more significant in females than in males.
Conclusion
These data revealed possible mechanisms by which females suffer more depression than males at least in a stressful environment.
... Depression comprises a number of emotional, cognitive, and behavioural or somatic symptoms ( Fig. 1) [14]. Depression has a direct or indirect relation with a number of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, stroke, epilepsy, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer [15], and the prevalence of depression is significantly higher in individuals suffering from a chronic disease than in those without [14]. ...
Comorbid diabetes with depression is a challenging and often under-recognized clinical problem. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, a communicable disease is thriving on the increasing incidences of these non-communicable diseases. These three different health problems are bidirectionally connected forming a vicious cycle. Firstly, depressed individuals show a higher risk of developing diabetes and patients with diabetes have a higher risk of developing symptoms of depression. Secondly, patients with diabetes have a higher risk of developing severe COVID-19 as well as of experiencing breakthrough infections. Thirdly, in both patients with type 2 diabetes and in COVID-19 survivors the prevalence of depression seems to be increased. Fourthly, lockdown and quarantine measurements during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in depression. Therefore, it is of importance to increase the awareness of this interface between depression, diabetes and COVID-19. Finally, as symptoms of post-COVID, diabetes and depression may be overlapping, there is a need for educating skilled personnel in the management of these comorbidities.
... episodes (the lifetime absence of mania and hypermania) with five symptoms present during 2 weeks (DSM-5, 2013;Uher et al., 2014;Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). The symptoms of depression can be divided into emotional and physical. ...
... The symptoms of depression can be divided into emotional and physical. The emotional symptoms of depression are stress, sadness, loss of interest, anxiety, hopelessness, difficulties with concentration, feeling of guilt, and suicidal thoughts (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). Physical symptoms include lack of energy, fatigue, pain, sleep disturbances, headaches, and psychomotor activity changes (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). ...
... The emotional symptoms of depression are stress, sadness, loss of interest, anxiety, hopelessness, difficulties with concentration, feeling of guilt, and suicidal thoughts (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). Physical symptoms include lack of energy, fatigue, pain, sleep disturbances, headaches, and psychomotor activity changes (Abdel-Bakky et al., 2021). The complexity of depression is evidenced by the classification of this illness proposed by the (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2013) shown in Figure 1. ...
Depression is a severe mental health problem that affects people regardless of social status or education, is associated with changes in mood and behavior, and can result in a suicide attempt. Therapy of depressive disorders is based mainly on drugs discovered in the 1960s and early 1970s. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are frontline pharmacological strategies for the medical treatment of depression. In addition, approved by FDA in 2019, esketamine [as nasal spray; N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors antagonist with additional effects on α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels, L-type voltage-dependent calcium channel (L-VDCC), opioid receptors, and monoaminergic receptors] is an essential compound in suicide and drug-resistant depression. However, the treatment of depression is burdened with severe side effects, and in many cases, it is ineffective. An equally important issue is the choice of antidepressant therapy in people with comorbid somatic diseases, for example, due to possible interactions with the patient's other drugs. Therefore, there is a great need for new antidepressants with different mechanisms of action and the need to refine the search for new substances. The purpose of this review was to discuss new research directions and new trends that dominate laboratories worldwide. We have reviewed the literature to present new points on the pharmacological target of substances with antidepressant activity. In addition, we propose a new perspective on depressive therapies.
... A metaanalysis of 183 studies reported that 27.2% of medical students had depression or depressive symptoms [2]. Depression among university students has many negative effects on their physical and mental health, such as academic burnout, sleep disturbances, leading to addictive behaviors and even suicide [3][4][5]. ...
Depression is common worldwide, and stigmatizing attitudes toward depression have proved to be one of the major barriers to seeking professional help. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the level of personal depression stigma and identify its predictive factors among medical students in Hainan, China, as well as explore the gender difference. A total of 2,186 medical students were recruited using stratified random cluster sampling and interviewed by structured anonymous questionnaires. Personal stigma was measured by the standardized Depression Stigma Scale (DSS). Multivariate linear regression models were used to identify predictors of stigma, and the interactions between gender and each predictor were included to test its gender difference. The mean score on DSS Scale was 13.71 ± 5.35, with males significantly higher than females (14.85 vs 12.99, P < 0.0001). Compared to females, males were more likely to agree with ‘I would not vote for a class cadre if I knew they had been depressed’ and ‘I would not make friends with him if I knew he had been depressed’. Multivariate linear regression analysis revealed that males’ personal stigma was predicted by being only child (ß = 1.01, P = 0.0083), moderate-to-severe depression (ß = 1.12, P = 0.0302), and lower self-rated academic core competitiveness (Competitive: ß = 1.29, P = 0.0088, Not at all/Somewhat competitive: ß = 1.04, P = 0.0381), while females’ personal stigma was only associated with moderate-to-severe depression (ß = 1.75, P < 0.0001). Significant interactions were found between gender and self-rated academic core competitiveness. Stigmatizing attitudes toward depression were prevalent among Chinese medical students, especially male students. Gender differences were found in the predictors of stigma. Effective measures must be taken to reduce the stigma of mental health among Chinese medical students.
... Another major reason affecting the publishment volume was that the outbreak of coronavirus at the end of 2019 and the epidemic by 2020 had affected individual mental health, including patients, individuals contacting patients and medical personnel, and worsened many determinants of mental health through direct psychological effects and long-term economic and social consequences (33)(34)(35). In the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, global prevalence of anxiety and depression increased by a massive 25%, according to a scientific brief released by the World Health Organization (WHO) (36). ...
In this study, we analyzed the status and research trends of the GABAergic system in depression from 2004 to 2020 to provide a reference for further research. The Web of Science database was used as the data source and 1,658 publishments were included. Using two visualization analysis software, CiteSpace and VOSviewer, we analyzed the publishing years, countries, institutions, authors, journals, categories, keywords, and research frontiers in depression. The publishments revealed an upward trend from 2004 to 2020; the most prolific country and institutions were the United States and INSERM, respectively. The journal of Neuroscience was the most published and cited journal. The most relevant category was neurosciences. The hot topics in this field were GABAergic research in Gaba(a) receptor; the research frontier was depressive model. These analysis results provide a new perspective for researchers to conduct studies on related topics in the future and guidance for scientists to identify potential collaborators and research cooperation institutions.
... One of the most studied and frequently observed effects of the COVID-19 pandemic is depression, which significantly increases the appearances of many somatic diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (2.0 times), cardiovascular diseases (1.5-2.0 times), stroke (1.8 times), epilepsy (4.0-6.0 times), diabetes (1.6 times), and cancer (1.0-1.3 times) [25], and increases the risk of suicide by 25 times [26]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a sharp increase in the use of drugs for depression, i.e., antidepressants. ...
... Antidepressants have many side-effects, including weight gain, sexual dysfunction, hypotension, and dyspeptic symptoms. Noncompliance or discontinuation of medication can lead to relapse of depression and increase the risk of suicide [25]. As a result, identifying risk groups for people who may be depressed is becoming more important. ...
... the effects of the virus, both directly and indirectly, are mediated by the immune system, hypoxia due to edema, and psycho-socioeconomic factors such as exclusion, stigma, and discrimination [90][91][92]. Moreover, some drugs, both those that have been part of COVID-19 therapy in the past and those about to enter the market, worsen the mental state of patients [25]. Viral epidemics in the past have shown how many mental symptoms an infected patient can face. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many aspects of our lives, including mental health. Identifying risk factors and risk groups associated with anxiety, depression, and other emotional disorders for reasons related to the COVID-19 pandemic is highly relevant. This narrative review aims to summarize the evidence to date on risk factors for emotional disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic in order to identify the risk groups of people in need of early psychiatric and psychological assistance, point out the controversial data on the influence of risk factors on emotional disorders in COVID-19, and finally offer recommendations for alleviating symptoms of anxiety, depression, and other emotional disorders in such people. According to the current literature, being under the age of 40, being female, having contact with a COVID-infected person, and watching the news about COVID-19 for more than 3 h a day all increase the likelihood of anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances. Healthcare workers, particularly nurses, working in the COVID-19 hot zone suffer more from sleep disorders, anxiety, and depression. It is also noted that people with a previous psychiatric history, in addition to increased risks of anxiety and depression, have an increased risk of relapse during the COVID-19 pandemic. The same is true for people who have had episodes of substance abuse in the past. Aside from socioeconomic factors, the mental wellbeing of those who have had COVID-19 is also impacted by biological factors (using anti-COVID-19 drugs, COVID-19-associated immunothrombosis and venous thromboembolism, interferon-gamma-related cytokine storm, etc.), resulting in a wide range of acute and long-term cognitive disorders. During the restricted resource time, the aforementioned risk groups should be prioritized for prevention, early identification, and proper treatment of potential emotional disorders. The risk factors that were found in this narrative review, as well as how they interact and change over time, will help understand why some studies of at-risk groups do not agree with each other, justify new preventive measures, and strengthen existing programs to keep people’s mental health in check during this pandemic and other emergencies.
... The amounts of a variety of inflammatory products, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were increased in patients within the central nervous system and peripheral blood. 18 In addition, a disturbed immune system is often reported in depressive patients and might be a crucial factor in the pathogenesis of depression. 19,20 Inflammation or inflammatory responses were the result of immune system activation, often accompanied by the triggering of pro-inflammatory responses, including cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and adaptive T cell-mediated immune responses. ...
Chaigui granules were a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) preparation with antidepressant effects derived from a famous antidepressant prescription. It was of great significance to clarify the antidepressant mechanism of Chaigui granules for the clinical application of this drug. In this study, a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) depression model was successfully established, and behavioral indicators were used to evaluate the antidepressant effect. Second, the CD4+, CD8+, and CD4+/CD8+ levels were detected in peripheral blood. Meanwhile, the amount of inflammatory cytokines was determined in serum. Correspondingly, LC/MS-based peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) metabolomics was used to investigate vital metabolic pathways participating in the antidepressive effects of Chaigui granules. Finally, bioinformatics technology was further employed to discover the potential antidepressant mechanism of Chaigui granules regulating the immune system. The results suggested that the administration of Chaigui granules significantly improved CUMS-induced depressive symptoms. Chaigui granules could improve immune function by regulating T lymphocyte subsets, increasing anti-inflammatory cytokine levels of IL-2 and IL-10, and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. In addition, metabolomics results of PBMCs showed that Chaigui granules improved 14 of the 25 potential biomarkers induced by CUMS. Metabolic pathway analyses indicated that purine metabolism was the critical metabolic pathway regulated by Chaigui granules. Furthermore, correlation analysis indicated that 13 key biomarkers were related to immune-related indicators. The metabolite-gene network of 13 key biomarkers was investigated by using bioinformatics. The investigation showed that 10 targets (5'-nucleotidase ecto; 5'-nucleotidase, cytosolic IB; 5'-nucleotidase, cytosolic II; etc.), mainly belong to the purine metabolism, might be potential targets for Chaigui granules to exert their antidepressant effects by improving immune function impairment. Together, our results suggested that Chaigui granules might exert antidepressant effects by improving immune function and regulating the purine metabolic pathway in PBMCs. This work used PBMCs metabolomics as an entry point to study the antidepressant mechanism of Chaigui granules, which provided a new way to elucidate the mechanism of a traditional Chinese medicine prescription.
