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Arbacia
punctulata and Lytechinus
variegatus are widely distributed echinoid species in shallow water in the western Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico that seem to have different life history strategies. We evaluated the effect of two types of stress (high temperature and starvation) on gonad production and scope for growth. We hypot...
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... In addition, the feeding behavior of Arbacia spp. has been shown to shift under future ocean warming scenarios, compensating for energy deficits (Hill and Lawrence, 2006;Minuti et al., 2021). The response of A. punctulata grazing behavior to shifting environmental factors, including kelp and turf availability and climate change, remains an area of active research. ...
Climate change is driving a shift in the distribution of global kelp forests, with the contraction of kelp habitats occurring at warm range edges. Declining kelps often have been replaced by novel algal turf assemblages, which are reinforced by ecological feedback mechanisms and provide fewer ecosystem services. Trophic interactions among marine herbivores, algal turfs, and kelps on algal turf-dominated reefs remain poorly resolved but could have important implications for the stability of algal turf reefs and the potential for kelp forest recovery. Here, we examine herbivory by the Atlantic purple sea urchin, Arbacia punctulata, in a degraded kelp forest ecosystem dominated by algal turf in southern New England, USA. In a localized field survey, we observed lower algal turf cover on reef areas containing A. punctulata (mean ± SE: 62 ± 12% turf cover) as compared to areas with no sea urchins present (92 ± 4% turf cover). Reef areas with and without sea urchins had similarly low cover of the previously dominant kelp, Saccharina latissima (6-8% kelp cover). In laboratory and field experiments, individuals or groups of A. punctulata enclosed with a diet choice of algal turf versus kelp had higher grazing rates on the algal turf. A. punctulata in the laboratory also exhibited greater attraction to algal turf over kelp, physically moving towards this food source. In combination, the results provide evidence that A. punctulata has a feeding preference for algal turf over kelp in southern New England. Future research is warranted to further examine the grazing ecology of A. punctulata, particularly in the context of ongoing kelp forest restoration efforts in this region.
... Echinoids typically have physiological and morphological characteristics that adapt to their surroundings, which can be attributed to differences in environmental conditions. Therefore, morphological plasticity is crucial for understanding physiological optimization and maximization of responses and/or adjustments to the survival of individuals under conditions of stress or environmental changes [9,10]. In non-genetically isolated populations, these variations may affect the species' body structures and their life history strategies [11][12][13]. ...
... The range or breadth of diets or extent of the trophic niche of regular echinoids has also been pointed out as a consequence of phenotypic plasticity [45,64]. Studies conducted with congeneric Arbacia lixula and A. dufresnii have linked the development of phenotypically distinct lanterns to the (broad) carnivorous or omnivorous food spectrum presented [9,10,21,[65][66][67][68]. ...
... Gonadal growth requires a specific functional digestive organization that ensures adequate transfer of nutrients to the gonads when the animal stops growing in test diameter (Sonnenholzner-Varas 2011). In this sense, gonadal performance in our experimental study could be affected by water temperature or other variables related to water quality, according to Hill and Lawrence (2006) who evaluated the effect of two types of stress (high temperature and starvation) on gonad production and growth margin in A. punctulata. They hypothesized that A. punctulata has a stress-tolerant life strategy and would be more stress-tolerant than other echinoids. ...
The sea urchin, Arbacia stellata is part of a new biofood landscape for the global marine non-food organisms to be used as nutraceuticals. A 98-day feeding trial (a simple completely randomized experimental design) was performed using specimens of A. stellata (n= 88; 29.3 ± 0.2 mm and 14.5 ± 0.3 g mean initial test diameter and weight, respectively) to evaluate the efficacy of three isoproteic diets containing crustacean and vegetable protein sources in different combinations, for developing a low-cost dry formulated diet for promoting their growth (in test diameter and weight), gonadal yield and survival. Diet 1 (shrimp, Penaeus vannamei), Diet 2 (Sacha Inchi, Plukenetia volubilis) and Diet 3 (mixed diet) were prepared. Six individuals per treatment were used. They were fed 1% in relation to the average body weight per container (0.86-0.97 g), every 48 hours under ad libitum condition. Diets 2 and 3 produced a significantly better performance for growth in test diameter 31.58 ± 0.21 mm, SGR= 0.0066 ± 0.0001 mm mo-1 and 31.18 ± 0.35 mm, SGR= 0.0064 ± 0.0001 mm mo-1, respectively. Similar results of growth in weight were obtained with diets 2 and 3, 19.13 ± 0.52 g, SGR= 0.0413 ± 0.0019 g mo-1 and 19.08 ± 0.48 g, SGR= 0.0377 ± 0.0017 g mo-1, respectively. Feed conversion ratio and gonadal index were better with diets 2 and 3. In general, the lowest performance was obtained with diet 1. Survival was greater than 54% and the starved group died on day 42. This study indicates that plant-based diets and the combination of various protein sources in the diets produced remarkable biological responses to A. stellata growth.
... We did, however, see that the consumption and faecal matter production began to increase post-heatwave, when the recovery process began. Therefore, the physiological stress imparted by the heatwave may have suppressed some functions to prioritise allocation of resources to thermal coping mechanisms (Hill and Lawrence, 2006;Pan et al., 2015). Once the acute temperature stress subsided, it is likely that this triggered a response to replenish lost energy reserves and may have enabled survival in the more resistant individuals (Leung et al., 2019;Smith et al., 2019). ...
Heatwaves are increasing in frequency and intensity, with substantial impacts on ecosystems and species which maintain their function. Whether or not species are harmed by heatwave conditions by being pushed beyond their physiological bounds can depend on whether energy replacement is sufficient to enable recovery from acute stress. We exposed an ecologically important sea urchin, Heliocidaris erythrogramma, to experimental marine heatwave scenarios in context with recent summer heat anomalies in moderate (25 °C), and strong heatwave (26 °C) conditions for 10 days, followed by a 10-day recovery period at normal summer temperature (23 °C). Greater heatwave intensity drove higher metabolic rates which were not matched with a concurrent increase in food consumption or faecal production. However, food consumption increased during the post-heatwave recovery period, likely to replenish an energy deficit. Despite this, mortality increased into the recovery period and seemed to be caused by latent effects, manifesting as a decline in health index as individuals progressed from spine and pedicellariae loss, through to loss of tube foot rigor, bald patch disease, culminating in mortality. We show for the first time that the acute thermal stress of heatwaves can have latent physiological effects that cause mortality even when conditions return to normal. Our results show that the negative effects of heatwaves can manifest after relief from stressful conditions and highlight the importance of understanding the latent effects on physiology and health. This understanding will offer insights into the long-term potential for stress recovery following seemingly sublethal effects and whether the restoration of ambient conditions post-heatwave is sufficient to ensure population stability.
... Thus, the earliest life stage of A. punctulata was resilient to a marine heatwave at this species' cold (northern) range edge. The demonstrated thermal tolerance of A. punctulata embryos is consistent with the broad geographic range of the species which extends southward into the Caribbean Sea where sea temperatures often reach as high as 31°C (Hill and Lawrence 2006). Indeed, our results support the notion that A. punctulata is at a suboptimal temperature for embryonic development at its cold range edge. ...
Marine heatwaves are discrete periods of anomalously warm sea temperatures that are globally increasing in frequency and intensity. Marine heatwaves that occur in spring and summer may coincide with the developmental timing of sensitive early life-history stages of benthic marine invertebrates. The successful development of these early life stages, along with other physical and biological factors, will determine the abundance of benthic populations. Here, we examine the effects of a laboratory-simulated marine heatwave on early development (fertilization and embryonic cleavage) in the sea urchin Arbacia punctulata taken from its cold (northern) range edge in the Northwest Atlantic. We predicted that a marine heatwave would yield accelerated development given that ambient temperatures at this cold range edge are likely suboptimal for development of A. punctulata. Consistent with this hypothesis, we observed faster fertilization and cleavage rates in a marine heatwave treatment (27.5°C) as compared to an ambient temperature treatment (21.8°C) within the first 3 hours of development. The results contribute to our understanding of how marine heatwaves can affect the earliest life stage of A. punctulata.
... The average density of A. punctulata was similar to densities observed in 20 m sites off the Gulf Coast, though greater densities have been found of both A. punctulata and L. variegatus in shallower sites (Hill and Lawrence 2003). Previous work has also found that temperature and to a greater extent food availability can impact energy budgets of these two species (Hill and Lawrence 2006). These two species appear to partition food resources despite the ability of both to consume invertebrates and algae. ...
Here we report on two preliminary studies that addressed patterns of movement for select demersal reef piscivores (gag grouper, Mycteroperca microlepis; scamp grouper,
Mycteroperca phenax; red snapper, Lutjanus campechanus; and black sea bass,
Centropristis striata) using implanted acoustic transmitters. Results are based
on transmitter detections from stationary receivers deployed at two spatial scales of
resolution at subtropical reefs.
... The average density of A. punctulata was similar to densities observed in 20 m sites off the Gulf Coast, though greater densities have been found of both A. punctulata and L. variegatus in shallower sites (Hill and Lawrence 2003). Previous work has also found that temperature and to a greater extent food availability can impact energy budgets of these two species (Hill and Lawrence 2006). These two species appear to partition food resources despite the ability of both to consume invertebrates and algae. ...
Reef habitats are of particular ecological and socio-economic interest, having characteristically have fish abundance and diversity. Tidal currents produce localized habitats with high delivery rates of planktonic prey that support aggregations of planktivorous fish (e.g., Decapturus spp.) and serve as the focus for enhanced rates of interactions with resident and transient piscivores (e.g., black sea bass, barracuda, greater amberjack, and various shark species). In areas such as sub-tropical reefs, variations in distribution and abundance of fish prey on reefs can be strong indicators of community structure based on direct food web and behavioral linkages to higher trophic level predators. Distribution and abundance of prey fish at high relief subtropical reefs in Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary were analyzed to assess variation in density and patterns of patchiness using data collected from split-beam fisheries acoustics surveys in 2011, 2012, and 2013. Higher densities of prey fish in 2012 and 2013 compared to 2011 as well as higher clumping or patchiness of prey in 2012 and 2013 compared to 2011, indicate an increase in both overall prey density and aggregation of prey in GRNMS.
... The average density of A. punctulata was similar to densities observed in 20 m sites off the Gulf Coast, though greater densities have been found of both A. punctulata and L. variegatus in shallower sites (Hill and Lawrence 2003). Previous work has also found that temperature and to a greater extent food availability can impact energy budgets of these two species (Hill and Lawrence 2006). These two species appear to partition food resources despite the ability of both to consume invertebrates and algae. ...
Piscivores at sub-tropical reefs are important elements of reef fish communities due to
their cascading influence through prey populations. While visual surveys by divers are effective for demersal predators and prey highly associated with reefs, they may not capture all of the reef-associated midwater predators (i.e., those beyond the range of visibility or with large ambits). In this study we assessed the utility of a novel method to assess the presence of reef associated "halo" predators (i.e., those high in the water column and immediately away from reefs) using towed underwater video with hook-less artificial baits.
... The average density of A. punctulata was similar to densities observed in 20 m sites off the Gulf Coast, though greater densities have been found of both A. punctulata and L. variegatus in shallower sites (Hill and Lawrence 2003). Previous work has also found that temperature and to a greater extent food availability can impact energy budgets of these two species (Hill and Lawrence 2006). These two species appear to partition food resources despite the ability of both to consume invertebrates and algae. ...
Predation activity of piscivorous fish and predator-prey interactions are two important
processes that in large part structure fish communities in many ecosystems, including
tropical and sub-tropical reef ecosystems. Distribution and abundance of fishes at select high relief reefs in Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary (NW Atlantic) were collected using split-beam fisheries acoustic surveys and analyzed to assess variation in density and abundance over diel periods. Surveys were conducted midday, pre-dusk, post-dusk, night, pre-dawn and post-dawn. Assignments as prey and predator were based on size class and species composition based on visual surveys by divers. Direct underwater observations of predator-prey interactions were also collected by divers during daytime and over the period of sunset.
... However, any energy from catabolism that has been reinvested in the anabolic processes of growth remains in the organism and is not subsequently lost, leading to an imbalance according to the energy conservation rule (Filgueira et al., 2011). These models are widely applied, and have been used to explore the energy budgets of a wide range of taxa including gastropods (Navarro et al., 1992;Lau and Leung, 2004), bivalves (Navarro et al., 2000;Sarà et al., 2008), echinoderms (Hill and Lawrence, 2006;Yuan et al., 2009), crustaceans (Normant and Lamprecht, 2006;Urbina et al., 2010) and fish (Peck et al., 2003). They have also been used to describe and predict somatic growth in bivalves (Filgueira et al., 2011;Larsen et al., 2014) and gastropods (Navarro et al., 2006). ...
Predicting how marine communities will be affected by environmental change is one of the most significant challenges facing researchers today. In order to tackle this challenge, a mechanistic understanding of climate impacts at the individual level is necessary, as variations in species physiological responses are often reflected in patterns at higher organisational levels such as populations and communities. In order to explore the relationship between individual physiology and higher-level dynamics more fully, the swimming crab Liocarcinus depurator (Linnaeus, 1758) was selected as a model species for experimental work in which whole organism responses (growth, respiration and allocation to reproduction) to climate drivers were investigated using a bio-energetic modelling approach. This species was selected as a model organism after analysis of epibenthic time-series from the Western English Channel monitoring Station L4 revealed that decapod crustaceans played a key role in structuring the benthic community, and that L. depurator was one of the most dominant species in the area, in terms of both abundance and biomass. A bio-energetic approach was used as the same time-series analysis identified water temperature and seasonal phytodetrital input (e.g. food) as the predominant drivers of variation in benthic community wet biomass at L4, with the two drivers appearing to primarily influence community biomass at different times of the year. It is possible that warmer water temperatures in the autumn trigger gonad development and a consequent increase in reproductive biomass, while the sedimentation of the spring phytoplankton bloom drives an increase in somatic biomass. This time-series analysis clearly highlighted the role of organism energetics, and the environmental conditions that influence energy allocation, in structuring benthic communities. Further work elucidated the relationship between environmental variables and individual energy budgets. L. depurator responses to climate drivers (temperature, hypoxia and ocean acidification) were tested experimentally, and a mechanistic Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) model was parameterised to describe the life history characteristics of crustaceans. At an individual level the model was able to accurately describe and predict observed responses to environmental drivers, both in isolation and in multiple stressor scenarios. Experimental results suggested that L. depurator was broadly tolerant of those climate drivers tested in the short term. Over the longer term however, model scenarios suggested that OA and the combined stressors may have an adverse effect on growth. When the multi-stressor model was forced with environmental projections from a coupled hydrodynamic-biogeochemical model (NEMO-ERSEM), it could be used to make predictions regarding ultimate carbon mass, age-at-maturity and cumulative allocation to reproduction, which were used to infer possible population level effects such as species distributions and population viability. Model scenarios suggested that, in the future, the optimum settlement time for juvenile L. depurator would shift forward across the north-west European shelf, and that this crustacean species may be able to expand its range further into the northern North Sea. The DEB model presented here can provide a mechanistic underpinning of observed species responses to climate drivers, and more broadly, the thesis demonstrates how multi-stressor models can be built from data collected in single stressor experiments, thereby providing a way of synthesising single stressor data into a modelling environment. This approach allows us to simulate more complex, ecologically relevant conditions. At a broader scale, the coupled DEB-ERSEM model showed that it can provide insight into why changes in species’ distributions are predicted, as these distributions are an emergent property of the processes being modelled.
