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Anthropometric landmarks: Exocanthion (ex), endocanthion (en), palpebrale superius (ps), palpebrale inferius (pi), and center of pupil
Source publication
Anthropometric data describing the palpebral fissure and its position is available for various populations. Unfortunately there is no data available for Malaysian South Indian.
The present study was undertaken to determine the normative values for Malaysian South Indian according to gender.
Anthropometric measurement was done on standardized photog...
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The periocular region has a central role in the prediction of ethnicity, understanding emotional expression, age, and sex. The aim of this study was to determine the sex-related growth changes in the periocular region of Turkish preadolescents, adolescents, and young adults. The study included a total of 234 individuals (preadolescents: 34 females...
Citations
... Earlier studies on RFTPs used purely direct measurement techniques whereas our study used a combination of direct and 2D measurement methods. However, it should be noted that 2D photogrammetry was discovered to be a validated tool in our previous published study [15], which was supported by many other previously published papers [16][17][18][19][20][21]. Another limitation of the current study is that, because there have been no previous studies [1,[3][4][5] that grouped the dimensions into three factors, the third factor from the analysis was excluded to make sure our study is comparable with other studies. ...
Background
The existing respiratory fit test panels (RFTPs) are based on Bivariate and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) which utilise American and Chinese head and facial dimensions. As RFTPs based on local facial anthropometric data for Malaysia are not available, this study was conducted with the aim to develop new RFTPs using Malaysian data.
Methodology
A cross-sectional study was conducted across Malaysia among 3,324 participants of the study of National Health and Morbidity Survey 2020 aged 18 and above. Ten head and facial dimensions were measured. Face length and face width were used to construct bivariate facial panel, whereas the scores from the first two PCA were used to develop the PCA panel.
Results
This study showed that Malaysians have the widest upper limit for facial width. It also found that three factors could be reduced from the PCA analysis. However only 2 factors were selected with PCA 1 representing head and facial size and PCA 2 representing facial shape. Our bivariate panel could accommodate 95.0% of population, while our PCA panel accommodated 95.6%.
Conclusion
This was the first study to use Malaysian head and facial anthropometry data to create bivariate and PCA panels. Respirators constructed using these panels are likely to fit ≥ 95.0% of Malaysia’s population.
... First, male Shih Tzus had a larger palpebral fissure length compared with female dogs, an anatomical difference that is also described in select human studies. 47 A recent study investigating the impact of facial conformation on canine health showed that a 10% increase in relative eyelid aperture more than tripled the risk for developing corneal ulcers. As such, the larger eyelid opening in male Shih Tzus may help explain the higher incidence of ulcerative keratitis described in male vs. female Shih Tzu dogs. 4 Except for PFL, sex did not influence other ocular surface parameters investigated in the present study. ...
Objective:
To characterize the ocular surface parameters and determine the prevalence of ocular pathology in Shih Tzu dogs.
Animal studied:
Fifty Shih Tzu dogs (28 male, 22 female).
Procedures:
Each dog underwent a complete ophthalmic examination (recording any pathology) and a series of diagnostics, allowing for a 10 min-interval between tests: intraocular pressure (IOP), blink rate, palpebral fissure length (PFL), corneal tactile sensation (CTS), Schirmer tear test and nasolacrimal reflex without (STT-1, NL-STT1) and with topical anesthesia (STT-2, NL-STT2), tear ferning, strip meniscometry test (SMT), tear film breakup time (TFBUT), and punctate fluorescein staining (PFS) of the cornea.
Results:
Mean ± SD test values were as follows: IOP (17.9 ± 3.7 mmHg), blink rate (2.4 ± 1.4 blinks/min), PFL (23.8 ± 1.8 mm), CTS (1.8 ± 0.7 cm), STT-1 (22.0 ± 5.5 mm/min), NL-STT1 (24.2 ± 4.7 mm/min), STT-2 (16.9 ± 6.5 mm/min), NL-STT2 (18.5 ± 7.5 mm/min), SMT (7.5 ± 3.5 mm/5 s), TFBUT (5.3 ± 2.4 s), tear ferning (1.3 ± 0.7), and PFS (1.6 ± 0.6). PFL was significantly greater in male vs. female Shih Tzus (p< .001). Age was negatively correlated with TFBUT results (r = -0.31, p = .027). Lagophthalmos was observed in 82% eyes. Ocular surface pathology was common, including adnexal abnormalities (100% eyes with caruncular trichiasis and medial lower lid entropion) and corneal opacification (27% pigmentation, 20% fibrosis, 12% neovascularization).
Conclusions:
Qualitative tear film deficiency (low TFBUT), along with several anatomical abnormalities that promote ocular irritation and reduce globe protection, together help explain the concerningly high prevalence of ocular surface disease in the Shih Tzu breed. Prophylactic measures (e.g., medial canthoplasty, topical lubrication) could be considered to improve ocular health in Shih Tzus.
... This may even have important implications for the growing field of facial feminization surgery. 53,78,79 It is worth highlighting that the authors pooled all participants regardless of adult age, with 77.6% of studies providing patients between the ages of 16 and 40. Although one might think age may play an important role in anthropometric proportions, the literature suggests that the ICD stabilizes as the craniofacial skeleton matures (at the latest around 16 years of age), and that no real difference arises throughout adulthood until 9,45,76,81,82 Following rapid growth within the first two years of life, orbital parameters reach greater than 86% of adult size by the age of 8 years. ...
Background:. The intercanthal distance (ICD) is central to our perception of facial proportions, and it varies according to gender and ethnicity. Current standardized reference values do not reflect the diversity among patients. Therefore, the authors sought to provide an evidence-based and gender/ethnicity-specific reference when evaluating patients’ ICD.
Methods:. As per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, a systematic search of PubMed, Medline, and Embase was carried out for studies reporting on the ICD. Demographics, study characteristics, and ICDs were extracted from included studies. ICD values were then pooled for each ethnicity and stratified by gender. The difference between men and women, and that across ethnicities and measurement types were compared by means of independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA (SPSS v.24).
Results:. A total of 67 studies accounting for 22,638 patients and 118 ethnic cohorts were included in this pooled analysis. The most reported ethnicities were Middle Eastern (n = 6629) and Asian (n = 5473). ICD values (mm) in decreasing order were: African 38.5 ± 3.2, Asian 36.4 ± 1.6, Southeast Asian 32.8 ± 2.0, Hispanic 32.3 ± 2.0, White 31.4 ± 2.5, and Middle Eastern 31.2 ± 1.5. A statistically significant difference (P < 0.05) existed between all ethnic cohorts, between genders among most cohorts, and between most values stratified by measurement type.
Conclusions:. Our standards of craniofacial anthropometry must evolve from the neoclassical canons using White values as references. The values provided in this review can aid surgeons in appreciating the gender- and ethnic-specific differences in the ICD of their patients.
... It is widely applied in orthodontic and reconstructive surgery, forensics, and the design of helmets, masks, eyeglasses and respirators (1). Numerous local anthropometric studies have been undertaken to achieve various objectives for the different needs of a range of target groups such as preschool children (2), young adults (3) and older persons (4), and such studies include some that have focused on the facial anthropometry of the Malaysian population (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). Many of these studies highlight the importance of incorporating ergonomic principles into design to ensure end-products fit with the body conditions and sizes of the target users. ...
... Although 2D images have been used widely for facial tissue analysis (5,10), evidence demonstrating the accuracy of 2D Abbreviations: 95%CI, 95% Confidence Interval; 2D, 2-Dimensional; 3D, 3-Dimensional; ICC, Intraclass correlation; NHMS, National Health and Morbidity Survey; NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; PCA, Principal Component Analysis; SD, Standard deviation; SE, Standard error. photogrammetry in measuring facial dimensions is lacking and that which does exist shows contradicting results. ...
... The remaining seven dimensions showed no difference in terms of mean value and had a high level of agreement according to the ICC analysis. The 2D photogrammetric method has been used widely by international (13)(14)(15)(16) and local studies (5,10). However, studies that compare 2D photogrammetry with direct measurement are scarce and have some limitations (19,20,28). ...
Objective
Facial anthropometric data is important for the design of respirators. Two-dimensional (2D) photogrammetry has replaced direct anthropometric method, but the reliability and accuracy of 2D photogrammetry has not been quantified. This study aimed to assess inter-rater reliability of 2D photogrammetry and to examine the reliability and accuracy of 2D photogrammetry with direct measurement.
Design
A cross-sectional study.
Setting
Malaysia.
Participants
A subset of 96 participants aged 18 and above.
Primary and secondary outcomes
Ten facial dimensions were measured using direct measurement and 2D photogrammetry. An assessment of inter-rater reliability was performed using intra-class correlation (ICC) of the 2D images. In addition, ICC and Bland-Altman analyses were used to assess the reliability and agreement of 2D photogrammetry with direct measurement.
Results
Except for head breadth and bigonial breadth, which were also found to have low inter-rater reliability, there was no significant difference in the inter-rater mean value of the 2D photogrammetry. The mean measurements derived from direct measurement and 2D photogrammetry were mostly similar. However, statistical differences were noted for two facial dimensions, i.e., bizygomatic breadth and bigonial breadth, and clinically the magnitude of difference was also significant. There were no statistical differences in respect to the remaining eight facial dimensions, where the smallest mean difference was 0.3 mm and biggest mean difference was 1.0 mm. The ICC showed head breadth had poor reliability, whilst Bland-Altman analyses showed seven out of 10 facial dimensions using 2D photogrammetry were accurate, as compared to direct measurement.
Conclusion
Only certain facial measurements can be reliably and accurately measured using 2D photogrammetry, thus it is important to conduct a reliability and validation study before the use of any measurement methods in anthropometric studies. The results of this study also suggest that 2D photogrammetry can be used to supplement direct measurement for certain facial dimensions.
... The morphometric characteristics of the palpebral fissure and canthal distance vary according to rase, ethnicity, age and sex, which is confirmed by many published and normative values which may serve as a reference in the index population (Vasanthakumar et al., 2012;Yu et al.). Also, an important factor in the morphometric analysis of the palpebral fissure are certain differences between the right and left sides of the human face, which are often present. ...
Frontaly and anteriorly the orbit is closed by a skin-muscular closure of eyelids. The eyelids limit the palpebral fissure, which is subject to geographical, racial, and age variations. As a part of the face, eyelids and palpebral fissure play a very important role in the attractiveness of the individual, but al so in the diagnosis of certain local and systemic pathological processes. The aim of the study was to perform a morphometric analysis of the palpebral fissure in a young population without pathological conditions and syndromes. The study was conducted on 90 subjects (45 male and 45 female) aged 19.28±0.69 years. Subjects were photographed with a Nikon D3400 camera, and the morphometric parameters were measured with the ImageJ 1.48v software. Statistical analysis of the data was performed in Windows Excel. The measurements in the study were the distance between the mid-points of both pupils, distance between both external canthi, distance between both internal canthi, palpebral fissure width and palpebral fissure height at three points. The average height of the palpebral fissure to the right is 9.35±1.55 mm and to the left is 9.41±1.56 mm. The average width of the palpebral fissure on the right is 27.05±1.71 mm and on the left is 27.18±1.68 mm. It was found that there was some difference in the measured parameters, however, this difference was not statistically significant.
... Subjects were asked to sit in an upright relaxed position "natural and normal" erect posture of head and shoulders, with both arms hanging free beside the trunk for the linear measurements of the face (Farkas et al., 2005) [11] . (Packiriswamy et al., 2012) [22] The following measurements were done up to 0.5 degree and 0.5 mm accuracy on the subjects with maximum care and comfort by using Neiko 01407A stainless steel digital caliper with extra-large LCD (liquid crystal display) screen and instant SAE-metric (Society of Automotive Engineers) conversion, New York, USA. Every measurement was obtained thrice by the same observer. ...
... Subjects were asked to sit in an upright relaxed position "natural and normal" erect posture of head and shoulders, with both arms hanging free beside the trunk for the linear measurements of the face (Farkas et al., 2005) [11] . (Packiriswamy et al., 2012) [22] The following measurements were done up to 0.5 degree and 0.5 mm accuracy on the subjects with maximum care and comfort by using Neiko 01407A stainless steel digital caliper with extra-large LCD (liquid crystal display) screen and instant SAE-metric (Society of Automotive Engineers) conversion, New York, USA. Every measurement was obtained thrice by the same observer. ...
Objectives: The aim was to determine the normal average values of lip liner measurements and to determine any significant sex differences exists in Indian Americans. Methods: The direct lip anthropometric measurements were carried out using digital caliper in 100 (men, women) Indian American students (18 to 30 years) of American University of Antigua (AUA), Antigua and compared between the sexes. Results: Lip measurements showed higher value in men than women. Cutaneous height of upper lip was higher in both sexes. The lower lip height and vermilion height was higher in both sexes. Lip ratios were reliable as compared to other parameters except vermilion-cutaneous upper and lower lips height in both sexes.
... A few studies have been conducted on orbitofacial anthropometry in Indian populations within India [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. But, the available literature search shows a study performed by Husein et ...
... In the present study, Palpebral fissure width in Indian Americans did not show statistical significant sexual difference (males: 36.08 mm; females: 35.52 mm). But the palpebral fissure width was higher in both sexes when compared with previous reports of Indian and Caucasian population [1,5,[9][10][11]16,[20][21][22] (Table 6). Husein et al. [16] photographic measurement on Palpebral fissure width in Indian American women (30.6 mm) and North American Caucasian women (31.3) showed lower value when compared to present study (35.52). ...
... In the present study, eyebrow thickness showed statistical significant sexual difference (men: 12.38 mm; women: 8.67 mm). Packiriswamy et al. [9] photographic study (men: 7.85 mm; women: 6.37 mm) on Indians and Sclafani and Jung [24] study on Caucasians showed lower value when compared to the present study (men: 12.38 mm; women: 8.67 mm). Men with thick and flat eyebrows are linked to perception of dominance and sexual dimorphic feature [25]. ...
Background: For the perception of facial attractiveness, the orbital region in the face acts as a key determinant factor. The Orbitofacial measurements vary with sex and race. Orbital region in the face is one of the most important regions in plastic, reconstructive and ophthalmic surgery and anthropometric evaluation. There are no reports available on the Orbitofacial anthropometry in Indian American population. Objectives: The objectives of the study were to determine the normal average values of linear measurements of the orbital and eyebrow regions and to determine any significant sex differences that exist in the Indian American students of American University of Antigua (AUA), Antigua. Methods: The direct orbitofacial anthropometric measurements (orbital and eyebrow linear measurements, height of the orbit to the length of the eye fissure ratio and canthal index) were carried out using digital caliper in 100 men and 100 women Indian American students (18 to 30 years) of AUA, Antigua and compared between sexes. Results: The orbital and eyebrow linear measurements of Indian American men showed higher value when compared to women. Outer canthal distance, inner canthal distance and thickness of the eyebrow showed statistically significant sexual difference. The palpebral fissure width, height of the orbit and inter eyebrow distance showed no statistical significant sexual difference. Height of the orbit to length of the eye fissure ratio and Canthal index were calculated and showed higher value in men when compared to women. Conclusion: The Orbitofacial anthropometric data obtained in the present study can be used as a reference value for Indian Americans and can be made use in diagnostic procedures, designing of products like optical spectacle frames and lenses, surgical procedures and also in studies involving facial attractiveness.
Objective: Facial anthropometric data is important for the design of respirators. Twodimensional
(2D) photogrammetry has replaced direct anthropometric method, but the
reliability and accuracy of 2D photogrammetry has not been quantified. This study aimed
to assess inter-rater reliability of 2D photogrammetry and to examine the reliability and
accuracy of 2D photogrammetry with direct measurement.
Design: A cross-sectional study.
Setting: Malaysia.
Participants: A subset of 96 participants aged 18 and above.
Primary and secondary outcomes: Ten facial dimensions were measured using
direct measurement and 2D photogrammetry. An assessment of inter-rater reliability
was performed using intra-class correlation (ICC) of the 2D images. In addition, ICC
and Bland-Altman analyses were used to assess the reliability and agreement of 2D
photogrammetry with direct measurement.
Results: Except for head breadth and bigonial breadth, which were also found to have
low inter-rater reliability, there was no significant difference in the inter-rater mean value
of the 2D photogrammetry. The mean measurements derived from direct measurement
and 2D photogrammetry were mostly similar. However, statistical differences were noted
for two facial dimensions, i.e., bizygomatic breadth and bigonial breadth, and clinically
the magnitude of difference was also significant. There were no statistical differences in
respect to the remaining eight facial dimensions, where the smallest mean difference was
0.3mm and biggest mean difference was 1.0 mm. The ICC showed head breadth had
poor reliability, whilst Bland-Altman analyses showed seven out of 10 facial dimensions
using 2D photogrammetry were accurate, as compared to direct measurement.
Conclusion: Only certain facial measurements can be reliably and accurately measured
using 2D photogrammetry, thus it is important to conduct a reliability and validation study
before the use of any measurement methods in anthropometric studies. The results
of this study also suggest that 2D photogrammetry can be used to supplement direct
measurement for certain facial dimensions
Background
The existing respiratory fits test panels (RFTPs) are based on Bivariate and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) which utilise American and Chinese head and facial dimensions. As RFTPs based on local facial anthropometric data for Malaysia are not available, this study was conducted with the aim to develop new RFTPs using Malaysian data.
Methodology
A cross-sectional study was conducted across Malaysia among 3,324 participants of the study of National Health and Morbidity Survey 2020 aged 18 and above. Ten head and facial dimensions were measured. Face length and face width were used to construct bivariate facial panel, whereas the scores from the first two PCA were used to develop the PCA panel.
Results
This study showed that Malaysians have the widest upper limit for facial width. It also found that two factors could be reduced from the PCA analysis, with PCA 1 representing head and facial size and PCA 2 representing facial shape. Our bivariate panel could accommodate 94.1% of population, while our PCA panel accommodated 95.5%.
Conclusion
This was the first study to use Malaysian head and facial anthropometry data to create bivariate and PCA panels. Respirators constructed using these panels are likely to fit > 94% of Malaysia's population.
Introduction:
To determine the normal distribution of interpupillary distance (IPD) in adult males and females of the Azerbaijani society and create a specific IPD database.
Materials and methods:
Subjects (641 males, 491 females) aged 18 to 85 years were investigated for anatomical IPD in this study. Eye examinations and measurements were performed. The subjects were divided into 2 main groups: male and female, and further divided into 4 groups according to the age range. Auto refractometer was used for IPD measurements (Topcon Auto Kerato-Refracto Tonometer TRK-2P, Tokyo, Japan).
Results:
The mean age in the 18 to 85 age range was 39.1 ± 15.2 years. The mean IPD was 63.7 ± 3.5 mm (range 51-82). IPD values were higher in males (P < 0.001), and IPD values were found to be statistically significant (P < 0.001).
Discussion:
Age, sex and ethnicity are all significant factors that influence IPD. IPD measurements are essential in surgical management, optical frames and lenses, forensic science and anthropological investigations.
