Figure 2 - uploaded by Srinivasa Chakravarthy
Content may be subject to copyright.
Source publication
Basal ganglia (BG) constitute a network of seven deep brain nuclei involved in a variety of crucial brain functions including: action selection, action gating, reward based learning, motor preparation, timing, etc. In spite of the immense amount of data available today, researchers continue to wonder how a single deep brain circuit performs such a...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... BG receive inputs from most of the sensory-motor areas of the cerebral cortex, including primary and secondary somatosensory areas, primary motor cortex (M1) and a variety of premotor areas, including supplementary area, the dorsal and ventral premotor areas. The anatomical basis of motor functions of BG is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. The portions of the cortex that are responsible for movement, namely, the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA), Premotor (PM), Primary Motor Area (M1), somatosensory cortex, and the superior parietal lobule make dense, topographically organized projections to the motor portion of the Putamen (input nucleus of the BG). The output of this ...
Context 2
... balance is switched just before movement onset, when dopamine release to striatum activates the direct pathway (Clark et al, 2005). Fig 2.2 shows the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia. ...
Context 3
... as Temporal Difference (TD) error in RL terminology (Sutton and Barto, 1998). It presents a possible scenario of BG as an implementation of RL machinery, that takes the dopamine signal from SNc, processes it, and broadcasts appropriate modulatory signals to the sensory-motor cortical pathways that form the neural substrates of S-R learning ( Fig. 2.1). To add strength to such a perspective, let us discuss some key RL concepts and consider them in relation to BG ...
Context 4
... had earlier suggested that the STN-GPe loop inside the BG circuit is rightly placed to support exploratory behavior (Sridharan et al 2006). In RL models, exploration is always modeled by stochastic components. ...
Context 5
... the above account, we understand that motor preparation is effected by two-way interactions between BG and SMA. A similar view of preparation had emerged out of a computational neuromotor model of handwriting generation (Gangadhar et al 2007b). ...
Context 6
... functional position of the subcortical nuclei of BG with respect to the cortex may be illustrated in fig. 12.1. BG take sensory information from sensorymotor cortical areas, combine it with dopaminergic reward information (from SNc) and supply a result of the synthesis of these two signals (reward + sensory-motor) to control or decision making areas of the cortex (prefrontal areas and supplementary motor area). BG inputs to these areas act as a ...
Context 7
... DA Sensory Cortex Figure 12.1: A simplified schematic for illustration the 'gating' function of BG. ...
Context 8
... the 'control areas' (PFC areas and SMA), which is far more sophisticated than mere gating. Another instance of such influence or modulation is motor preparation, in which BG monitors SMA activity and sends preparatory drive to SMA before sequencing the next movement. The two-way interaction between Control areas (here SMA) and BG shown in fig. 12.1, provides the anatomical substrate for such a preparatory ...
Context 9
... thalamic targets BG Exploration Exploitation Figure 12.2: The Direct and Indirect Pathways of BG, hypothesized to subserve exploitation and exploration functions, respectively. ...
Context 10
... between exploitation and exploration. Incorporating the idea that the Indirect Pathway (IP) consisting of the STN and the GPe has the machinery to generate the randomized signal necessary to drive exploration, we now have a picture of BG function in which the Direct and the Indirect Pathways subserve exploitation and exploration respectively ( fig. 12.2). There have been several studies which suggest that loss of complex activity in the Indirect Pathway might be responsible for Parkinsonian tremor. Thus, unlike several earlier theoretical suggestions which consider the Indirect Pathway as playing a somewhat weaker role like, for example, providing contextual information, or focusing ...
Similar publications
The subjective representation of “time” is critical for cognitive tasks but also for several motor activities. The neural network supporting motor timing comprises: lateral cerebellum, basal ganglia, sensorimotor and prefrontal cortical areas. Basal ganglia and associated cortical areas act as a hypothetical “internal clock” that beats the rhythm w...
Voluntary motor deficits are a common feature in Huntington's disease (HD), characterised by movement slowing and performance inaccuracies. This deficit may be exacerbated when visual cues are restricted.
To characterize the upper limb motor profile in HD with various levels of difficulty, with and without visual targets.
Nine premanifest HD (pre-H...
Citations
... Thus, the serial strategy might involve the combination of innate thigmotaxis-like behavior with associative learnings underlying vestibule-reward and left turn-reward associations. Finally, the random strategy might be related to exploratory behaviors and engage an ensemble of brain regions important for sensory integration, decision-making and reinforcement learning such as the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and basal ganglia (Chersi and Burgess, 2015;Roberts et al., 1962;Hok et al., 2005;Yin et al., 2005;Chakravarthy et al., 2010;Rinaldi et al., 2020;Dong et al., 2021;Pernía-Andrade et al., 2021;Choi et al., 2021). ...
Animals can use a repertoire of strategies to navigate in an environment, and it remains an intriguing question how these strategies are selected based on the nature and familiarity of environments. To investigate this question, we developed a fully automated variant of the Barnes maze, characterized by 24 vestibules distributed along the periphery of a circular arena, and monitored the trajectories of mice over 15 days as they learned to navigate towards a goal vestibule from a random start vestibule. We show that the patterns of vestibule visits can be reproduced by the combination of three stochastic processes reminiscent of random, serial, and spatial strategies. The processes randomly selected vestibules based on either uniform (random) or biased (serial and spatial) probability distributions. They closely matched experimental data across a range of statistical distributions characterizing the length, distribution, step size, direction, and stereotypy of vestibule sequences, revealing a shift from random to spatial and serial strategies over time, with a strategy switch occurring approximately every six vestibule visits. Our study provides a novel apparatus and analysis toolset for tracking the repertoire of navigation strategies and demonstrates that a set of stochastic processes can largely account for exploration patterns in the Barnes maze.
... The "behavior change" effect in the basal ganglia is influenced by signals from many areas of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, which plays an important role in executive functions. It has been hypothesized that the basal ganglia are responsible not only for motor movement selection, but also for the selection of further cognitive actions [35,36]. ...
Background: The neurobiological basis of delusional disorder is less explored through neuroimaging techniques than in other psychotic disorders. This study aims to provide information about the neural origins of delusional disorder (DD) by examining the neuroanatomical features of some basal nuclei with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) texture analysis.
... It is noteworthy that the temporal centrality of the BGN exhibited significant differences, with ASD patients showing higher average values compared to TDC. Clinical symptoms of ASD include behavioral features such as repetitive and restrictive behaviors (Fakhoury, 2015), with the BGN considered to play a crucial regulatory role in action selection (Chakravarthy et al., 2010;Calderoni et al., 2014). A previous study suggested that activation of the basal ganglia in ASD patients leads to increased synchrony between cortical areas, indicating a weakened ability of the basal ganglia to filter brain signals (Prat et al., 2016). ...
Objective
In this work, we propose a novel method for constructing whole-brain spatio-temporal multilayer functional connectivity networks (FCNs) and four innovative rich-club metrics.
Methods
Spatio-temporal multilayer FCNs achieve a high-order representation of the spatio-temporal dynamic characteristics of brain networks by combining the sliding time window method with graph theory and hypergraph theory. The four proposed rich-club scales are based on the dynamic changes in rich-club node identity, providing a parameterized description of the topological dynamic characteristics of brain networks from both temporal and spatial perspectives. The proposed method was validated in three independent differential analysis experiments: male–female gender difference analysis, analysis of abnormality in patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and individual difference analysis.
Results
The proposed method yielded results consistent with previous relevant studies and revealed some innovative findings. For instance, the dynamic topological characteristics of specific white matter regions effectively reflected individual differences. The increased abnormality in internal functional connectivity within the basal ganglia may be a contributing factor to the occurrence of repetitive or restrictive behaviors in ASD patients.
Conclusion
The proposed methodology provides an efficacious approach for constructing whole-brain spatio-temporal multilayer FCNs and conducting analysis of their dynamic topological structures. The dynamic topological characteristics of spatio-temporal multilayer FCNs may offer new insights into physiological variations and pathological abnormalities in neuroscience.
... Popular theories implicate the basal ganglia primarily in action selection-in helping to decide which of several possible behaviors to execute [39]. In more specific terms, the basal ganglia's primary function is likely to control and regulate activities of the motor and premotor cortical areas so that voluntary movements can be performed smoothly [40]. ...
A highly intelligent system often draws lessons from the unique abilities of humans. Current humanlike models, however, mainly focus on biological behavior, and the brain functions of humans are often overlooked. By drawing inspiration from brain science, this article shows how aspects of brain processing such as sensing, preprocessing, cognition, obstacle learning, behavior, strategy learning, pre-action, and action can be melded together in a coherent manner with cognitive control architecture. This work is based on the notion that the anti-collision response is activated in sequence, which starts from obstacle sensing to action. In the process of collision avoidance, cognition and learning modules continuously control the UAV’s repertoire. Furthermore, simulated and experimental results show that the proposed architecture is effective and feasible.
... Notably, the basal ganglia of non-right-handed people were larger than those of right-handed people, suggesting that left-handed people have be er motor control than right-handed people. Indeed, the putamen and globus pallidus play an important role in motor control [12] and cognitive control [13]. The putamen is involved in motor performance, movement sequences, and motor preparation because of its connections with cortical structures involved in the control of body movements [14][15][16][17]. ...
Handedness, a complex human aspect that reflects the functional lateralization of the hemispheres, also interacts with the immune system. This study aimed to expand the knowledge of the lateralization of hand, foot, and eye activities in patients with immune-mediated (IM) or other (noIM) neurological diseases and to clarify the properties of the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI) in an Italian population. Three hundred thirty-four patients with IM or noIM diseases affecting the brain or spine and peripheral nervous system were interviewed about stressful events preceding the disease, subjective handedness, and familiarity for left-handedness or ambidexterity. The patients and 40 healthy subjects underwent EHI examination. In the whole group of participants, 24 items of the EHI were classified into five factors (Hand Transitive, Hand Refined, Hand Median, Foot, Eye), demonstrating good reliability and validity. Chronological age had a significant influence on hand and foot EHI factors and the laterality quotient (LQ), particularly on writing and painting. In the patient groups, EHI factors and the LQ were also predicted by age of disease onset, duration of disease, and family history of left-handedness or ambidexterity. No differences were found between patients and healthy subjects, but pencil use scored significantly lower in patients with IM diseases than in those with noIM brain diseases. These results demonstrate that the lateralization of hand and foot activities is not a fixed human aspect, but that it can change throughout life, especially for abstract and symbolic activities. Chronic neurological diseases can cause changes in handedness. This may explain why, unlike systemic immunological diseases, IM neurological diseases are not closely associated with left-handedness. In these patients, the long version of the EHI is appropriate for determining the lateralization of body activities to contextualize the neurological picture; therefore, these findings extend the Italian normative data sets.
... In particular, the coactivations of both ROIs spanned parts of the bilateral striatum (putamen and caudate body) and bilateral pallidum (lateral globus pallidus) of the basal ganglia. Previous functional imaging, animal model and clinical studies linked the basal ganglia (usually the putamen and the caudate nucleus) with diverse emotional, motor and cognitive processes (Albin et al. 1989;Chakravarthy et al. 2010;Groenewegen 2003;Lanciego et al. 2012;Packard and Knowlton 2002). Along these lines, the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuitry has been implicated in a range of sensorimotor, cognitive, emotional and motivational brain functions (Alexander and Crutcher 1990;Copland and Angwin 2019;Groenewegen 2003; phonological processing (particularly the superior temporal gyrus) (Turkeltaub and Branch Coslett 2010;Vigneau et al. 2006), syntactic processing (Friederici 2012;Hagoort and Indefrey 2014;Heard and Lee 2020;Rodd et al. 2015;Vigneau et al. 2006;Walenski et al. 2019) and semantic processing (Friederici 2012;Hagoort and Indefrey 2014;Rodd et al. 2015;Vigneau et al. 2006). ...
Background: Despite a pervasive cortico-centric view in cognitive neuroscience, subcortical structures including the thalamus have been shown to be increasingly involved in higher cognitive functions. Previous structural and functional imaging studies demonstrated cortico-thalamo-cortical loops which may support various cognitive functions including language. However, large-scale functional connectivity of the thalamus during language tasks has not been examined before. Methods: The present study employed meta-analytic connectivity modeling to identify language-related coactivation patterns of the left and right thalami. The left and right thalami were used as regions of interest to search the BrainMap functional database for neuroimaging experiments with healthy participants reporting language-related activations in each region of interest. Activation likelihood estimation analyses were then carried out on the foci extracted from the identified studies to estimate functional convergence for each thalamus. A functional decoding analysis based on the same database was conducted to characterize thalamic contributions to different language functions. Results: The results revealed bilateral frontotemporal and bilateral subcortical (basal ganglia) coactivation patterns for both the left and right thalami, and also right cerebellar coactivations for the left thalamus, during language processing. In light of previous empirical studies and theoretical frameworks, the present connectivity and functional decoding findings suggest that cortico-subcortical-cerebellar-cortical loops modulate and fine-tune information transfer within the bilateral frontotemporal cortices during language processing, especially during production and semantic operations, but also other language (e.g., syntax, phonology) and cognitive operations (e.g., attention, cognitive control). Conclusion: The current findings show that the language-relevant network extends beyond the classical left perisylvian cortices and spans bilateral cortical, bilateral subcortical (bilateral thalamus, bilateral basal ganglia) and right cerebellar regions.
... Desde el punto de vista anatómico, se sabe que la FC emerge de la corteza prefrontal (CPF) y está conectada con los ganglios basales (Cameron et al., 2010;Chakravarthy et al., 2010;Pauli et al., 2016;Stocco et al., 2010;Zink et al., 2021). En efecto, Zink et al. (2021) reconocen que la FC está conectada con áreas cerebrales específicas que están circunscritas anatómicamente a la CPF y que se pueden relacionar con un conjunto de estructuras cerebrales similares o superpuestas. ...
... En efecto, Zink et al. (2021) reconocen que la FC está conectada con áreas cerebrales específicas que están circunscritas anatómicamente a la CPF y que se pueden relacionar con un conjunto de estructuras cerebrales similares o superpuestas. En este sentido, la FC activaría grandes porciones del cerebro, lo que convergería tanto en la CPF, la corteza cingulada anterior y la corteza parietal posterior (Chakravarthy et al., 2010;Niendam et al., 2012;Stocco et al., 2010;Zink et al., 2021). ...
Se ha demostrado que las competencias matemáticas tempranas ejercen un rol importante en el aprendizaje de esta disciplina y que tanto la flexibilidad cognitiva como la planificación favorecen este proceso. Sin embargo, la mayoría de las investigaciones han relacionado las funciones ejecutivas con los resultados matemáticos generales, sin tomar en cuenta que esta disciplina incluye diversos componentes que varían en su complejidad cognitiva. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar la capacidad predictiva de la flexibilidad cognitiva y la planificación en las competencias matemáticas lógico-relacionales y numéricas de 106 niños de educación inicial de escuelas chilenas, quienes fueron evaluados con dos tareas ejecutivas y un test de competencias matemáticas tempranas. Para el análisis de datos se realizaron correlaciones y modelos de regresión lineal múltiple. Los resultados mostraron que la flexibilidad cognitiva fue un predictor significativo de las competencias matemáticas tanto lógico-relacionales como numéricas, mientras que la planificación lo fue solo de las numéricas. Estos resultados confirman la importancia de la flexibilidad cognitiva y la planificación en el desarrollo de las competencias matemáticas tempranas, lo que podría propiciar intervenciones específicas sobre estas funciones ejecutivas y así favorecer el aprendizaje de las matemáticas en la educación inicial.
... Notably, the basal ganglia of non-right-handed people were larger than those of right-handed people, suggesting that left-handers had better motor control than right-handers. In this regard, it is known that the basal ganglia, such as the putamen and globus pallidus, play an important role in motor control [17,18]. The putamen is involved in motor performance, movement sequences, and motor preparation because of its connections with cortical structures involved in the control of body movements [19][20][21][22]. ...
Handedness reflects functional body and hemispheric lateralization, proving relevant to contextualize cognitive and behavioral profiles. This study aimed to determine the lateralization of the hands, feet and eyes in patients with various neurological disorders and to test the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI), a widely used handedness measure. The study design included a literature overview and a clinical study. The overview spanned the literature of the past 50 years since the EHI was developed. Three hundred seventy-four patients with immune-mediated (IM) or noIM neurological diseases and healthy subjects underwent personal and family history of handedness, stressful events and IM diseases, and EHI. The literature overview showed that handedness, which develops under the influence of genetic and acquired factors, is an indirect indicator of hemispheric lateralization; hemispheric lateralization is bidirectionally related to the immune system. In the clinical study, the EHI showed appropriate reliability and structural validity; its scores related to chronological age, onset age, and disease duration and helped distinguish patients with IM disease from other patients and healthy subjects. Therefore, handedness may change over the course of life under the influence of pathology and could predict IM neurological diseases. The EHI is an appropriate measure of handedness.
... The model performs hill-climbing in the landscape of the value function by weight update as mentioned in Eq. (22) are updated to achieve gating function on memory items and action selection respectively to perform the WM task. Such multi-objective function optimisation under RL framework is observed in BG and thought to play an important role in WM functions Chakravarthy et al. 2010;Doya and Kimura 2014). Similarly, such hierarchical learning rules are also proposed in the context of PFC-BG working memory models (Hazy et al. 2007;Schroll et al. 2012). ...
Working memory (WM) is considered as the scratchpad for reading, writing, and processing information necessary to perform cognitive tasks. The Basal Ganglia (BG) and Prefrontal Cortex are two important parts of the brain that are involved in WM functions, and both structures receive projections from dopaminergic nuclei. In this modelling study, we specifically focus on modelling the WM functions of the BG, the WM deficits in Parkinson’s disease (PD) conditions, and the impact of dopamine deficiency on different kinds of WM functions. Though there are many experimental and modelling studies of WM properties, there is a paucity of models of the BG that provide insights into the contributions of the BG in WM functions. The proposed model of BG uses bistable flip-flop neurons to model striatal up-down neurons, a network of nonlinear oscillators to model the oscillations of the Indirect Pathway of BG and race-model for action selection. Five different WM tasks are used to demonstrate the generalisation ability of the proposed model. Experimental data from the four tasks are compared with model performance in both control and PD conditions. The model is extended to predict the response time of subjects and in the PD version of the model, the effect of dopaminergic medication on WM performance is also simulated. The proposed model of BG is a unified model that can explain the WM functions of the BG over a wide variety of tasks in both normal and PD conditions, and can be used to understand why specific WM functions are impaired whereas others remain intact in PD.
... This protein is involved in the regulation of dopamine concentration in the central nervous system, which plays an important role in cognitive and emotional regulation (Wu et al., 2020). Dopamine also plays an important role in motor control mechanisms (Chakravarthy et al., 2010), therefore the COMT protein may also be important for motor functions. In terms of the Val158Met polymorphism, three genotypes are distinguished: Val/Val homozygotes, Val/Met heterozygotes and Met/Met homozygotes. ...
Regulation Disorders of Sensory Processing (RDSP) are disorders of hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity to a specific modality (or modalities) of sensory stimuli. These disorders also affect motor skills as well as executive functions, which is important for the child's neurodevelopment. Patterns of sensory-motor integration may be genetically determined. Particular attention is paid to polymorphisms of the COMTgene. The study involved 15 children with neurodevelopmental disorder (aged 7 –17) divided into two groups in terms ofCOMTgenotype. Their RDSPs was examined and then a comparative analysis was made. It was shown that the Val/ValCOMTgenotype may predispose to increased risk of hypersensitivity RDSPs of vestibular system, proprioceptive system and visual system, as well as motor coordination. Met allele (Val/Met and Met/Met genotypes), on the other hand, showed a significant reduced tendency to these RDSPs. The results correlate with numerous studies on the relationship of the COMTgenotype with sensory-motor integration functions. Thanks to the presented study, we know that this relationship may relate primarily to hypersensitivity disorders and may be associated primarily with the senses and functions related to postural control and motor control. Most likely, a study conducted on a larger sample would yield much more clinically significant findings, however, the presented results may direct further neurogenetic research both in the context of neurorehabilitation as well as developmental psychology and neurology. It may contribute to the better understanding of the neurogenetic conditions of human neurodevelopment.
