3 Amphibians show a strong relationship between red blood cell volume and genome size. This relationship is strong both in the raw data (left) and in the phylogenetic independent contrasts (right)

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... Fig. 3.1 (middle), 20 species in Clade A are equally related to each other, as are another 20 species in Clade B. However, the two sister clades are separated by a long period of independent evolution, indicated by long branches. Imagine we have measured two continuous traits, for example, tree height and seed mass. If we imagine a simple (if ...

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... are an excellent instructive example. Figure 3.2 was created by plotting the logarithm of body mass (x-axis) against genome size (y-axis), represented by the "C-value," a term for a physical measurement of the mass of the genome in picograms (genomic size has been measurable since the 1950s using techniques from cell biology long before genome sequencing was available). ...

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... we look at the regression in Fig. 3.2 (left), it appears that despite substantial scatter, there is good evidence of a positive relationship. The slope is positive, the R 2 is 0.27, and the P-value is an impressive P = 1.5 × 10 −44 . Conventionally, any P less than 0.05 would be considered a statistically significant relationship. However, when we take the same data and ...

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... turns out that a lot of what is driving the apparent relationship in Fig. 3.2a is the fact that hummingbirds, indicated by the blue circles, have both tiny body masses and slightly smaller genomes than other birds. However, all hummingbirds share these two traits, which were presumably already present in a common ancestor, so in actuality, this only provides one instance where body size and genome size appear ...

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... is important to note that the PICs method does not always destroy apparent relationships. While relationships between genome size and complexity or body size are often not supported in analyses of multicellular clades, some clades show a strong relationship between genome size and the size of their red blood cells (Fig. 3.3). In this case, the apparent relationship in the raw traits is confirmed in the regression of ...

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... our random-wandering model for continuous traits evolution, we can estimate, very approximately, the most probable ancestral values of cell size and genome size. These ancestral state estimates can be mapped onto the amphibian phylogeny ( Fig. 3.4). Doing so shows why the correlation between the two traits is not merely a product of phylogenetic structure: across the amphibian tree, increases in cell size co-occur with increases in genome size, and these coincident events occur many times across the ...

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... species originated, and this concern dominated evolutionary science for many decades, a careful reading of the Origin indicates that the whole point was to undermine the permanency of species in favor of a phylogenetic view. We can trace a clear path from his phylogenetic speculations in 1859 to the phylogenetics revolution of recent decades ( Fig. 3.5) and the real-time global tracking of deadly pathogens today. While showing the impermanence of species was one of Darwin's major revolutionary advances, it may be that phylogenetic thinking, which in time may allow "science without species," could, in the end be the bigger of the two revolutions. , and publication counts have grown ...

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... (Sirajuddin 2009). Some taxa were quite tolerant of N levels, such as the Thelephoraceae, a group well known for drought tolerance as well. Others, including taxa of Rhizopogon, a group known to be important in the mammal and owl food chain, and Russula, a common late seral taxon, virtually disappeared with N deposition or fertilization (Fig. 8.3). Protection of the fungal clades crucial for pines, flying squirrels, and spotted owls, by reducing air pollution, could play an important role for conserving biodiversity across the region. t44ScBo st26XeCh1 s2BoDr st95BoSub t40XeSp4 t60XeSp4 t13RhEl s56RhAcr s58RhAcr3 st8RhSp2 st6RhBr2 tt84RhBr3c tt85RhBr1c t14RhSa1 s71RhSa2 t15RhSp3 ...

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... 85,000 terawatts. A terawatt (TW) is a trillion watts, or about the same power as one hundred billion LED lightbulbs. The amount of solar that hits the earth thus far surpasses the ~20 TW that we currently use, as well as our projected 15-30 TW electrified world. 7 A summary of the potential of renewable or natural sources of energy is given in Fig. 9.3. The sun is the primary source of almost all our renewables-energy that can be replenished. The major player is solar (85,000 TW) and it is abundant wherever the sun shines. The sun heats the air and creates wind (3600 TW at all altitudes, around 400 TW that can be harnessed with turbines). The winds whip up waves (62 TW deep ocean, 3T ...