Ampere’s second experiment [6] . 

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Context 1

... was a tale going about a curious student from the first row who was the first to see the compass stir not the professor [4]. However this finding was not really accidental. Oersted was getting acquainted with the book of French academician Dominique Arago with an overview of a lightning influence including facts about ship magnetic compasses demagnetizing. Also he was the German philosopher Friedrich Schelling’s theory follower in belief that all physical phenomena and among them electricity and magnetism are linked. After Oersted magnetic field tensity unit was named as 1 oersted in CGS system. Oersted’s experiments p roduced a stormy reaction in a science community and particularly in Paris Academy of Sci- ence where such famous academicians as Dominique Arago, Jean-Baptiste Biot, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Félix Savart , André Marie Ampère were deeply interested in electricity. This Academy was under Napoleon Bonaparte’s personal patro n- age who was its member, support scientists and established the huge and prestigious scientific prize for findings scaled with Frank lin’s and Volta’s contributions. Usually academicians gathered once a week to report their up to date researches. At the regular meeting on September 11, 1820 academician Arago demonstrated to his colleagues the Oersted’s experiment and declared very excitedly that it is a real overturn [4]. The most impressed person was Ampere (Fig. 3) who rushed to his mechanic to order his own experimental set-up which was demonstrated to his surprised colleagues at the meeting on September 25, 1820. This set up shown in Fig.4 had a wire coil abcd rotating in mercury contacts x, y at supports Y . A magnetic flux created by the coil current along the coil axis tends to align the coil with the Earth flux direction from any initial position. Such positive result encouraged Ampere to keep on the research and his next famous experiment was devot- ed to a currents’ interaction. In the new set up shown in Fig. 5 the first current is flowing through a moving conductor 1 and the second through a fixed one 2 . It was found that currents are attracting under unidi- rectional currents (as it is shown in Fig. 5) and repelling when currents have opposite directions. Such experiments enable Ampere to formulate in 1825 the famo us Ampere’s Law – the Law of electromagnetic interaction or “Bli rule” for shorts: where: f – mechanical force (Ampere’s force), applied to a moving conductor; B – electromagnetic induction near this conductor; l – moving conductor active length; i current value in it. The Ampere’s force direction is determined by the left hand rule proposed later by the famous English scientist and engineer John Ambrose Fleming in 1904. Let us apply it to the case shown in Fig. 5. Really the magnetic flux created by the current in the fix conductor 2 near the moving conductor 1 in accordance with the right hand cork screw rule is directed down. Hence the Fleming’s left hand rule predicts that the Ampere’s force tends to attract the moving conductor to the fix conductor that confirms the Ampere’s observation. Ampere was well educated man and he left a lot of papers with good mathematical description of all known electrical phenomena and laws with new terminology such as “current strength”, “galvanometer” (an inst rument for the current strength measurement), “solenoid” and even “cybernetics” [7]. He also proposed the first galvanometer called now as an amperometer in the form similar to the Oersted’s set up (Fig. 2) where the magnet needle was suspended on an elast ic string as in the Coulomb’s ba l- ance [2]. One of his important ideas was the hypothesis ex- plaining the iron magnetization effect by the proposal that every iron piece is composed of tiny domains with circular currents in them created the domain magnetic flux. Initially all domains fluxes set chaotic however applying any external magnetic flux for example from a solenoid forces all domains or part of them set align with the external flux producing the iron piece magnetization. Now we know that really such domains are iron atoms and the Ampere’s circular current is produced by electrons rot a- tion around an atom core and own axes (electronic spin). Ampere’s science contribution was widely recognized. The current unit in SI is named after him as 1 ampere in line with three other fundamental units: m, kg and sec. He has a monument and a museum in his native city Lyon [4]. Really he was a genius: about 2 decades passed between the Volta’s battery invention and the Oersted’s di scovery and only two weeks was enough for Ampere to prove a current and a magnetic flux interaction. Michael Faradey named him as the “Newton of electricity” [8]. Ampere’s outstanding discovery born a lot of fo l- lowers. In 1825 English lecturer William Sturgeon invented an electromagnet by inserting an iron core into a solenoid. To increase its action he proposed to bend the electromagnet as a horseshoe (Fig. 6). It opened way to more and more powerful electromagnets and in 1832 the famous American physicist Josef Henry designed 2000 kg strong electromagnet (Fig. 7). The secret of his success was a wire insulated with a silk thread while in the Sturgent’s electromagnet the wire was bare. III. OHM ’ S LAW EXPERIMENTAL FINDING The next important step was the determination of voltage – current relation in every circuit. It was made in 1827 by German teacher in physics and mathematics George Ohm (Fig. 8) after very labor-consuming experiments with a sophisticated set up. The Ohm’s Law seems very simple. For example in the circuit shown in Fig. 9 a current i flowing through a load resistor R is: i = u/R , where u – voltage across the battery terminals. Storage ...

Context 2

... was a tale going about a curious student from the first row who was the first to see the compass stir not the professor [4]. However this finding was not really accidental. Oersted was getting acquainted with the book of French academician Dominique Arago with an overview of a lightning influence including facts about ship magnetic compasses demagnetizing. Also he was the German philosopher Friedrich Schelling’s theory follower in belief that all physical phenomena and among them electricity and magnetism are linked. After Oersted magnetic field tensity unit was named as 1 oersted in CGS system. Oersted’s experiments p roduced a stormy reaction in a science community and particularly in Paris Academy of Sci- ence where such famous academicians as Dominique Arago, Jean-Baptiste Biot, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Félix Savart , André Marie Ampère were deeply interested in electricity. This Academy was under Napoleon Bonaparte’s personal patro n- age who was its member, support scientists and established the huge and prestigious scientific prize for findings scaled with Frank lin’s and Volta’s contributions. Usually academicians gathered once a week to report their up to date researches. At the regular meeting on September 11, 1820 academician Arago demonstrated to his colleagues the Oersted’s experiment and declared very excitedly that it is a real overturn [4]. The most impressed person was Ampere (Fig. 3) who rushed to his mechanic to order his own experimental set-up which was demonstrated to his surprised colleagues at the meeting on September 25, 1820. This set up shown in Fig.4 had a wire coil abcd rotating in mercury contacts x, y at supports Y . A magnetic flux created by the coil current along the coil axis tends to align the coil with the Earth flux direction from any initial position. Such positive result encouraged Ampere to keep on the research and his next famous experiment was devot- ed to a currents’ interaction. In the new set up shown in Fig. 5 the first current is flowing through a moving conductor 1 and the second through a fixed one 2 . It was found that currents are attracting under unidi- rectional currents (as it is shown in Fig. 5) and repelling when currents have opposite directions. Such experiments enable Ampere to formulate in 1825 the famo us Ampere’s Law – the Law of electromagnetic interaction or “Bli rule” for shorts: where: f – mechanical force (Ampere’s force), applied to a moving conductor; B – electromagnetic induction near this conductor; l – moving conductor active length; i current value in it. The Ampere’s force direction is determined by the left hand rule proposed later by the famous English scientist and engineer John Ambrose Fleming in 1904. Let us apply it to the case shown in Fig. 5. Really the magnetic flux created by the current in the fix conductor 2 near the moving conductor 1 in accordance with the right hand cork screw rule is directed down. Hence the Fleming’s left hand rule predicts that the Ampere’s force tends to attract the moving conductor to the fix conductor that confirms the Ampere’s observation. Ampere was well educated man and he left a lot of papers with good mathematical description of all known electrical phenomena and laws with new terminology such as “current strength”, “galvanometer” (an inst rument for the current strength measurement), “solenoid” and even “cybernetics” [7]. He also proposed the first galvanometer called now as an amperometer in the form similar to the Oersted’s set up (Fig. 2) where the magnet needle was suspended on an elast ic string as in the Coulomb’s ba l- ance [2]. One of his important ideas was the hypothesis ex- plaining the iron magnetization effect by the proposal that every iron piece is composed of tiny domains with circular currents in them created the domain magnetic flux. Initially all domains fluxes set chaotic however applying any external magnetic flux for example from a solenoid forces all domains or part of them set align with the external flux producing the iron piece magnetization. Now we know that really such domains are iron atoms and the Ampere’s circular current is produced by electrons rot a- tion around an atom core and own axes (electronic spin). Ampere’s science contribution was widely recognized. The current unit in SI is named after him as 1 ampere in line with three other fundamental units: m, kg and sec. He has a monument and a museum in his native city Lyon [4]. Really he was a genius: about 2 decades passed between the Volta’s battery invention and the Oersted’s di scovery and only two weeks was enough for Ampere to prove a current and a magnetic flux interaction. Michael Faradey named him as the “Newton of electricity” [8]. Ampere’s outstanding discovery born a lot of fo l- lowers. In 1825 English lecturer William Sturgeon invented an electromagnet by inserting an iron core into a solenoid. To increase its action he proposed to bend the electromagnet as a horseshoe (Fig. 6). It opened way to more and more powerful electromagnets and in 1832 the famous American physicist Josef Henry designed 2000 kg strong electromagnet (Fig. 7). The secret of his success was a wire insulated with a silk thread while in the Sturgent’s electromagnet the wire was bare. III. OHM ’ S LAW EXPERIMENTAL FINDING The next important step was the determination of voltage – current relation in every circuit. It was made in 1827 by German teacher in physics and mathematics George Ohm (Fig. 8) after very labor-consuming experiments with a sophisticated set up. The Ohm’s Law seems very simple. For example in the circuit shown in Fig. 9 a current i flowing through a load resistor R is: i = u/R , where u – voltage across the battery terminals. Storage ...

Context 3

... was a tale going about a curious student from the first row who was the first to see the compass stir not the professor [4]. However this finding was not really accidental. Oersted was getting acquainted with the book of French academician Dominique Arago with an overview of a lightning influence including facts about ship magnetic compasses demagnetizing. Also he was the German philosopher Friedrich Schelling’s theory follower in belief that all physical phenomena and among them electricity and magnetism are linked. After Oersted magnetic field tensity unit was named as 1 oersted in CGS system. Oersted’s experiments p roduced a stormy reaction in a science community and particularly in Paris Academy of Sci- ence where such famous academicians as Dominique Arago, Jean-Baptiste Biot, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Félix Savart , André Marie Ampère were deeply interested in electricity. This Academy was under Napoleon Bonaparte’s personal patro n- age who was its member, support scientists and established the huge and prestigious scientific prize for findings scaled with Frank lin’s and Volta’s contributions. Usually academicians gathered once a week to report their up to date researches. At the regular meeting on September 11, 1820 academician Arago demonstrated to his colleagues the Oersted’s experiment and declared very excitedly that it is a real overturn [4]. The most impressed person was Ampere (Fig. 3) who rushed to his mechanic to order his own experimental set-up which was demonstrated to his surprised colleagues at the meeting on September 25, 1820. This set up shown in Fig.4 had a wire coil abcd rotating in mercury contacts x, y at supports Y . A magnetic flux created by the coil current along the coil axis tends to align the coil with the Earth flux direction from any initial position. Such positive result encouraged Ampere to keep on the research and his next famous experiment was devot- ed to a currents’ interaction. In the new set up shown in Fig. 5 the first current is flowing through a moving conductor 1 and the second through a fixed one 2 . It was found that currents are attracting under unidi- rectional currents (as it is shown in Fig. 5) and repelling when currents have opposite directions. Such experiments enable Ampere to formulate in 1825 the famo us Ampere’s Law – the Law of electromagnetic interaction or “Bli rule” for shorts: where: f – mechanical force (Ampere’s force), applied to a moving conductor; B – electromagnetic induction near this conductor; l – moving conductor active length; i current value in it. The Ampere’s force direction is determined by the left hand rule proposed later by the famous English scientist and engineer John Ambrose Fleming in 1904. Let us apply it to the case shown in Fig. 5. Really the magnetic flux created by the current in the fix conductor 2 near the moving conductor 1 in accordance with the right hand cork screw rule is directed down. Hence the Fleming’s left hand rule predicts that the Ampere’s force tends to attract the moving conductor to the fix conductor that confirms the Ampere’s observation. Ampere was well educated man and he left a lot of papers with good mathematical description of all known electrical phenomena and laws with new terminology such as “current strength”, “galvanometer” (an inst rument for the current strength measurement), “solenoid” and even “cybernetics” [7]. He also proposed the first galvanometer called now as an amperometer in the form similar to the Oersted’s set up (Fig. 2) where the magnet needle was suspended on an elast ic string as in the Coulomb’s ba l- ance [2]. One of his important ideas was the hypothesis ex- plaining the iron magnetization effect by the proposal that every iron piece is composed of tiny domains with circular currents in them created the domain magnetic flux. Initially all domains fluxes set chaotic however applying any external magnetic flux for example from a solenoid forces all domains or part of them set align with the external flux producing the iron piece magnetization. Now we know that really such domains are iron atoms and the Ampere’s circular current is produced by electrons rot a- tion around an atom core and own axes (electronic spin). Ampere’s science contribution was widely recognized. The current unit in SI is named after him as 1 ampere in line with three other fundamental units: m, kg and sec. He has a monument and a museum in his native city Lyon [4]. Really he was a genius: about 2 decades passed between the Volta’s battery invention and the Oersted’s di scovery and only two weeks was enough for Ampere to prove a current and a magnetic flux interaction. Michael Faradey named him as the “Newton of electricity” [8]. Ampere’s outstanding discovery born a lot of fo l- lowers. In 1825 English lecturer William Sturgeon invented an electromagnet by inserting an iron core into a solenoid. To increase its action he proposed to bend the electromagnet as a horseshoe (Fig. 6). It opened way to more and more powerful electromagnets and in 1832 the famous American physicist Josef Henry designed 2000 kg strong electromagnet (Fig. 7). The secret of his success was a wire insulated with a silk thread while in the Sturgent’s electromagnet the wire was bare. III. OHM ’ S LAW EXPERIMENTAL FINDING The next important step was the determination of voltage – current relation in every circuit. It was made in 1827 by German teacher in physics and mathematics George Ohm (Fig. 8) after very labor-consuming experiments with a sophisticated set up. The Ohm’s Law seems very simple. For example in the circuit shown in Fig. 9 a current i flowing through a load resistor R is: i = u/R , where u – voltage across the battery terminals. Storage ...