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The IP address consumption and the global routing table size are two of the vital parameters of the Internet growth. In this paper we quantitatively characterize the IPv4 address allocations made over the past six years and the global BGP routing table size changes during the same period of time. About 63,000 address blocks have been allocated sinc...
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... on their relations to the corresponding allocated ad- dress blocks, covering prefixes can be categorized into three classes: allocation intact, aggregation over multiple alloca- tions, or fragments from a single allocation. We plot the percentage for these three types of covering prefixes in Fig- ure 11 by using data from VP1 and VP2. The figure shows that, in early 1999, about 50% of covering prefixes repre- sented the allocated address blocks and 40% of them were advertised as fragments of allocations. ...
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Citations
... There are two forms of IP address: IPv4 and IPv6. For IPv4, the first 24-bit groups identify Network ID, and the remaining 8 bits represent Host ID [15]. For IPv6, the address is more standardized, which could be more easily solved. ...
The device detected from the public network usually associates with an IP as the unique identity generally. The problem is that many registrants of devices are always different from their true users, which make it difficult for operators to discover whether the IPs are used normally. The research on users of IPs plays an important role to help us for network security and protection. In this paper, we are seeking the users of devices and investigating why they are exposed to the public from five aspects: SSL certificates, protocol banners, address, topology and location. We presented FIUD: A Framework to Identify Users of Devices to extract users automatically. FIUD is based on Seed Extension so as to ensure both accuracy and coverage of user identification. We evaluated our methodology in laboratory and in the real-world. Compared with the mature results in the industry, the experiment shows that our methodology has achieved higher performances to discover the true users of IPs. At the same time, we did the network measurement in Beijing based on our methodology.
... Internet protocol (IP) is basically the primary protocol used by information technology for global communication. This protocol is utilized for data transmission from source to destination [2]. Internet protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the widely used internet protocol version in the world today [3]. ...
... Before the full deployment of IPv6, it is essential to investigate the quality performance of networks adopting this protocol in the areas including availability, quality of service, throughput, network performance, jitter, bandwidth, and packet loss. Various studies have been done to investigate the two prominent protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) [2] [3] [6] [8][9][10][11][12][13], yet to the best of our knowledge, there is no existing study that empirically compares these protocols on a testbed environment. The reason behind the comparative analysis is not just to know the performance of IPV6, but also to see if IPV6 will perform better than IPV4. ...
... The backbone routing table has been growing at an exponential rate, driven mainly by multi-homing and the rapid development of mobile communication (Meng et al. 2005). The fast increasing routing table incurs fast increasing FIB. ...
With the fast development of Internet, the size of routing table in the backbone router continues to grow rapidly. forwarding information base (FIB), which is derived from routing table, is stored in line-card to conduct routing lookup. Since the line-card’s memory is limited, it would be worthwhile to compress the FIB for consuming less storage. Therefore, various FIB compression algorithms have been proposed. However, there is no well-presented mathematical support for the feasibility of the FIB compression solution, nor any mathematical derivation to prove the correctness of these algorithms. To address these problems, we propose a universal mathematical method based on the Group theory. By defining a Group representing the longest prefix matching rule, the bound of the worst case of FIB compression solution can be figured out. Furthermore, in order to guarantee the ultimate correctness of FIB compression algorithms, routing table equation test is proposed and implemented to verify the equivalence of the two routing tables before and after compression by traversing the 32-bit IP address space.
... Second, network operators often divide large block of IP prefixes allocated to an Autonomous System (AS) into smaller ones and advertise them via Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) to enable fine-grained traffic engineering. According to several research studies ( [1], [2]), around 50% of BGP-announced prefixes are more specific prefixes, i.e., the total address space they cover belongs to large address blocks allocated by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). 40% of these more specific prefixes are attributed to Traffic Engineering, which is used by network administrators to avoid congested paths [3] or fight against prefix hijacking [4]. ...
Several approaches to mitigating the Forwarding Information Base (FIB) overflow problem were developed and software solutions using FIB aggregation are of particular interest. One of the greatest concerns to deploy these algorithms to real networks is their high running time and heavy computational overhead to handle thousands of FIB updates every second. In this work, we manage to use a single tree traversal to implement faster aggregation and update handling algorithm with much lower memory footprint than other existing work. We utilize 6-year realistic IPv4 and IPv6 routing tables from 2011 to 2016 to evaluate the performance of our algorithm with various metrics. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first time that IPv6 FIB aggregation has been performed. Our new solution is 2.53 and 1.75 times as fast as the-state-of-the-art FIB aggregation algorithm for IPv4 and IPv6 FIBs, respectively, while achieving a near-optimal FIB aggregation ratio.
... For quite some time now, the number of FIB rules at the Internet core routers has been growing. In 2017, the FIB size exceeds 700k. 1 New forwarding rules emerge primarily because of the growth of the Internet itself, trends for advertising more specific routes [20] (e.g., for traffic engineering purposes [29]), or the increasing demand for virtual networks [6], [16]. The migration to IPv6 is not expected to mitigate the address space disaggregation problem [7]. ...
This paper studies the problem of compressing the forwarding information base (FIB), but taking a wider perspective. Indeed, FIB compression goes beyond sheer compression, as the gain in memory use obtained from the compression has consequences on the updates that will have to be applied to the compressed FIB. We are interested in the situation where forwarding rules can change over time, e.g., due to border gateway protocol (BGP) route updates. Accordingly, we frame FIB compression as an online problem and design competitive online algorithms to solve it. In contrast to prior work which mostly focused on static optimizations, we study an online variant of the problem where routes can change over time and where the number of updates to the FIB is taken into account explicitly. The reason to consider this version of the problem is that leveraging temporal locality while accounting for the number of FIB updates helps to keep routers CPU load low and reduces the number of FIB updates to be transferred, e.g., from the network-attached software-defined network controller to a remote switch. This paper introduces a formal model which is an interesting generalization of several classic online aggregation problems. Our main contribution is an O(w)-competitive algorithm, where w is the length of an IP address. We also derive a lower bound which shows that our result is asymptotically optimal within a natural class of algorithms, based on so-called sticks.
... In [9], a case study of Internet services in Africa has been shown. In [10], a measurement study of IPv4 and the allocation process has demonstrated. The number of these researches is tremendous. ...
Internet measurements are required to obtain statistics
and insights of how applications, services and protocols
are operating over the Internet. These insights and statistics
are utilized to reveal operational and functional issues, predict
the Internet future and propose new services and protocol to
enhance Internet operation. In this work, a case study of Internet
measurement in Jordan will be demonstrated. The case study
aims to gain insights of the web hosting process, IP addresses,
autonomous system (AS) paths and country paths between clients
in Jordan and DotJO websites. To facilitate the conducted
measurement process, a list of all DotJo websites has been
crawled. Subsequently, trace-route, IP-to-AS and AS-to-Country
processes have been utilized. Our results show that more P2P
relationships have to be deployed in the country to reduce AS
paths and enhance QoS. Moreover, local hosting of DotJo websites
should be encouraged to enhance the ICT field in Jordan.
... As the Internet grows, the current Internet architecture is suffering from scalability issues, including the increase of border gateway protocol routing tables [1,2], addressing, mobility [3], multi-homing [4], and inter-domain traffic engineering [5]. Because of those scalability issues, both academia and industry re-discovered locator/identifier split paradigm to increase the scalability of the Internet architecture [4]. ...
As the current Internet architecture is suffering from scalability issues, the network research community has proposed alternative designs for the Internet architecture. Among those solutions that adopt the idea of locator/identifier split paradigm, the locator/identifier separation protocol (LISP) has been considered as the most promising solution because of its incrementally deployable feature. Despite various advantages provided by LISP, many ISPs are still conservative to adopt LISP into their production network because the standard LISP does not fully satisfy ISP's requirements on LISP-enabled services. In this paper, we define ISP's requirements on LISP-enabled commercial services and describe limitations of the standard LISP from an ISP's perspective. Also, we propose LISP controller, a centralized LISP management system. By using LISP controller, we evaluate three ISP's representative LISP use cases: traffic engineering, virtual machine live migration, and vertical handover. The results show that the proposed LISP controller provides centralized management, controllability, and fast map entry update, without any modifications on the standard LISP. LISP controller allows an ISP to control and manage its LISP-enabled services while satisfying ISP's requirements. Copyright
... As the Internet grows, the current Internet architecture is suffering from scalability issues including the increase of BGP routing tables [17], [20], addressing, mobility [21], multihoming [25] and inter-domain traffic engineering [28]. Due to those scalability issues, both academia and industry rediscovered Locator/Identifier Split paradigm to increase the scalability of the Internet architecture [25]. ...
... Internet has maintained a rapid growth for years, leading to a roughly 15% annual increase of the routing table size [2]. Taking the AS6447 1 as an example, it had only about 70K entries in its routing table in 2000, but went beyond 400K at the beginning of 2012 [3]. ...
... In [1], Draves et al. proposed ORTC algorithm to construct an optimal routing table via two basic operations: 'and' and 'union'. Actually, there exists more than one optimal routing table, and we propose Election and Representative (EAR) algorithm to construct a different 2 1 AS6447 is a backbone router's autonomous system number. 2 The compressed tries of EAR and ORTC have different structures, but their numbers of solid nodes (prefix number) are equal. ...
... Actually, there exists more than one optimal routing table, and we propose Election and Representative (EAR) algorithm to construct a different 2 1 AS6447 is a backbone router's autonomous system number. 2 The compressed tries of EAR and ORTC have different structures, but their numbers of solid nodes (prefix number) are equal. through a different approach. ...
... Characterizing growth of the Internet routing system. Measurement studies track the growth in the number of IP prefixes and BGP update messages over time [4], [26], and identify the causes of growth such as multi-homing, traffic engineering, and address allocation policies [27], [28], [29], [30], [31]. DRAGON reduces the number of globally routed IP prefixes and BGP update messages. ...
The Internet routing system faces serious scalability challenges, due to the growing number of IP prefixes it needs to propagate throughout the network. For example, the Internet suffered significant outages in August 2014 when the number of globally routable prefixes went past 512K, the default size of the forwarding tables in many older routers. Although IP prefixes are assigned hierarchically, and roughly align with geographic regions, today's Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and operational practices do not exploit opportunities to aggregate routes. We present a distributed route-aggregation technique (called DRAGON) where nodes analyze BGP routes across different prefixes to determine which of them can be filtered while respecting the routing policies for forwarding data-packets. DRAGON works with BGP, can be deployed incrementally, and offers incentives for ASs to upgrade their router software. We present a theoretical model of route-aggregation, and the design and analysis of DRAGON. Our experiments with realistic assignments of IP prefixes, network topologies, and routing policies show that DRAGON reduces the number of prefixes in each AS by about 80% and significantly curtails the number of routes exchanged during transient periods of convergence.
