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Administrative division of Taita Taveta County into four sub-counties. Tsavo West and East National Parks also fall within the county administrative units. Elephant migratory routes were adapted and edited from Smith and Kasiki (2000) and Okita-Ouma et al. (2017).
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People and wildlife have co-occurred, sharing resources for thousands of years, however, over the last four decades records of human–wildlife conflict have increasingly emerged. Human–elephant conflict is a form of such conflict, resulting from negative interactions between people and elephants. Human–elephant conflict affects local community livel...
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Context 1
... study was carried out in Taita Taveta County in south-eastern Kenya (Fig. 1). The county covers an area of 17 071 km 2 , has 340 670 inhabitants (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2019), and is administratively divided into four sub-counties of Mwatate, Taveta, Voi, and Wundanyi (Fig. 2). Most of Mwatate (650e2000 m a.s.l.) and Voi (230e1600 m a.s.l.) are topographically flat and belong to savannah ecotype vegetation dominated by Acacia-Commiphora bushlands; and comprise of majority of the Taita ranches between Tsavo East and West National Parks. However, Mwatate includes part of the rough and elevated Taita Hills, and ...
Context 2
... land area, about 22% is under agriculture and settlements, and the remaining is rangeland mainly used for cattle ranches and pastoralism (County Government of Taita Taveta, 2018). Wildlife conservation is mainly in the Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks, Taita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), Ngutuni, Rukinga and LUMO community conservancy (Fig. A2). In addition, the world's largest sisal (Agave sisalana) plantations are in Mwatate, Taveta and Voi ( Wachiye et al., submitted). Agriculture is the main source of livelihood, contributing to approximately 95% of household income and 80% of employment in TTC (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, 2016). Agriculture is ...
Context 3
... in addition to managing problematic animals is also involved in different community outreach projects. CWS has specialized units of well-trained and equipped ranger force that responds to HWC issues across the county. The CWS units in TTC fall under the Tsavo Conservation Area and have stations in Voi, Bura, Taveta, Njukini, and Kamboyo (Fig. 2). HWC incident reporting by the local community is done through telephone hotlines maintained by each of the CWS stations. The reporting lines are open 24 h a day, seven days a week. The call line is widely circulated to area leaders, including area chiefs, village elders, and community members. Communication within the CWS units is ...
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Citations
... Urbanization has dramatically increased during recent decades in Taita-Taveta County, with a 700% increase in developed landcover during the past decade and a steadily increasing human population (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2019;Nyongesa et al., 2022). Human-wildlife interactions have increased because of higher rates of environmental loss and forest degradation brought on by altered agricultural activity, accelerated climate change, and a rapidly expanding human population(Maeda, 2012;Munyao et al., 2020). ...
Synanthropic bats live in close proximity to humans and domestic animals, creating opportunities for potential pathogen spillover. We explored environmental correlates of occurrence for a widely distributed synanthropic African bat, Mops pumilus—a species associated with potential zoonotic viruses—and estimated current and future environmental suitability in the Taita Hills region and surrounding plains in Taita–Taveta County in southeast Kenya. To project future environmental suitability, we used four Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 general circulation models that capture temperature and precipitation changes for East Africa. The models were parameterized with empirical capture data of M. pumilus collected from 2016 to 2023, combined with satellite‐based vegetation, topographic, and climatic data to identify responses to environmental factors. The strongest drivers for current environmental suitability for M. pumilus were short distance to rivers, higher precipitation during the driest months, sparse vegetation—often related to urban areas—and low yearly temperature variation. To predict current and future areas suitable for M. pumilus, we created ensemble niche models, which yielded excellent predictive accuracies. Current suitable environments were located southward from the central and southern Taita Hills and surrounding plains, overlapping with urban centers with the highest human population densities in the area. Future projections for 2050 indicated a moderate increase in suitability range in the southern portion of the region and surrounding plains in human‐dominated areas; however, projections for 2090 showed a slight contraction of environmental suitability for M. pumilus, potentially due to the negative impact of increased temperatures. These results show how environmental changes are likely to impact the human exposure risk of bat‐borne pathogens and could help public health officials develop strategies to prevent these risks in Taita–Taveta County, Kenya, and other parts of Africa.
... Ecological environmental factors like land cover also play important roles in the occurrence of HWCs due to their influence on the distribution and habits of wildlife (Thorn et al., 2012;Evans et al., 2014;Poessel et al., 2017). However, previous studies on HWCs mainly focused on single species (Gubbi et al., 2014;Munyao et al., 2020) or local region with a specific landscape such as agricultural (Carter et al., 2020;Koirala et al., 2021). In addition, most of previous studies have examined the ecological and socioeconomic aspects of HWCs separately (Buchholtz et al., 2020;Dalerum, 2021). ...
With the expansion of human activities and increasingly effective protection of biodiversity, human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs) are increasing. Determining the patterns and causes of HWCs at the landscape scale is important for the design and implementation of effective management actions. We used in-house questionnaires, combined with data from insurance companies and other sources, to take the Tibetan Plateau as an example to reveal the pattern and potential causes of HWCs. Livestock predation and house break-ins were the most common types of conflict on the plateau, and wolves (Canis lupus) (56.9 %) and bears (Ursus arctos) (35.8 %) were the main culprits. In the pastoral zone, 65.3 % of conflicts were caused by wolves, more than in other regions, and bears accounted for 20.8 %. Bears were responsible for house break-ins in crop-dominated zones (60.5 %), while they preyed on livestock in mixed crop and pasture zones (80.0 %). Differences in forest cover between regions are likely to be the cause of this, with bears preying more on livestock in areas with greater forest cover. Livestock loss caused by wolves increased, and those caused by bears decreased, with increase in elevation. Households with more livestock experienced a greater incidence of HWCs. Livestock losses were lower in counties with higher gross regional product per capita, and economic development likewise influenced the occurrence of HWCs. Our research findings provide a fundamental understanding of the patterns of HWC, which can inform the development of evidence-based policies and strategies for effectively addressing HWCs in the future.
... There is a slight variation in rainfall within TCA, with highlands receiving relatively higher rainfall of approximately 1200mm and low area approximately 500mm annually. Temperatures in the area are also influenced by altitude, with highlands experiencing temperatures range of 18 0 C -27 0 C, and the lowlands between 23 0 C -35 0 C (Munyao et al. 2020). The landscape is characterized by hills such as Yatta Plateau, Taita Hills and Sagalla Hills. ...
Background: Wildfires, in recent years have caused devastating destructions in many parts of the world due to extreme weather conditions. Wildfire trend in Tsavo Conservation Area in Kenya is not well understood and published articles on wildfires in the region are limited. Our study aimed at establishing the relationship between weather and Wildfire pattern in Tsavo Conservation Area, which is in southeastern side of Kenya. Such information could be useful in predicting the likelihood of Wildfire occurrence. Hence making Wildfire management easier and sustainable.
Results: We obtained secondary data for Wildfire occurrence and climatic factors to establish: Relationship between Wildfires and weather patterns, Wildfire seasons, Wildfire predictive models and Wildfire indicators combination matrix model. Our study obtained remote sensed Wildfires data for 19-year period from 2002 – 2020 from National Aeronautical and Space Administration website. We also obtained weather data for the same period from the Kenya Meteorological Department. The data provided by Kenya Meteorological Department included temperature, rainfall, wind speed, and humidity. Our study used Generalized Additive Model with poison distribution and Spearman Correlation to analyze the relationship between Wildfire occurrence and weather variables. The year 2020 recorded the highest number of Wildfire of 481 during the study period. We established the wildfire season for the Tsavo Conservation Area to be from June to October. September recorded the highest average number of Wildfires of 690 within the 19-year period. Humidity is the best predictor for wildfires in Tsavo Conservation Area. Our study also came up with a Matrix Model that could be used to identify months of the year that are likely to experience high Wildfire occurrence.
Conclusion: The findings would be very useful in Wildfire management as they provide new knowledge on Wildfire occurrences in the area. Humidity factors being the best in predicting Wildfires and June-October being the Wildfire season for Tsavo Conservation Area forms such knowledge. The Matrix Model provide the basis for further studies in Wildfire forecast.
... When livelihoods are threatened, the loss of ecosystems and wildlife has profound individual, community, cultural, and religious significance. Examples include communities being forced off land to clear rainforest for agriculture; threats to safety, property, or crops from conflicts with wildlife with degraded habitats (e.g., elephants in Kenya; Munyao et al., 2020); illegal wildlife poaching (e.g., pangolin scale and rhino horn; 't Sas-Rolfes et al., 2019); and the deterioration of ecosystems like wetlands or coral reefs and their services (e.g., for subsistence, recreation, or protection). Such consequences and experiences can induce strong emotional and psychological responses (e.g., grief, anger, stress, depression) with potentially severe impacts on health. ...
We see unique opportunities to advance emotional research by studying an overlooked environmental problem. The biodiversity crisis is caused by land use, in particular by reducing and damaging habitats, such as deforestation for cattle grazing. Biodiversity processes are proximate and personally moving, like when a person is causing or experiencing changes to livelihood-providing ecosystems, and we suggest this affect-rich context is useful for studying social and psychological processes. In contrast, much research on far-away populations thinking about climate change effects involves more abstract and distant cognitions. We also suggest biodiversity-related emotions have consequential outcomes for health and behavior, and provide advice for shaping research programs on specific populations and wildlife interactions.
... When livelihoods are threatened, the loss of ecosystems and wildlife has profound individual, community, cultural, and religious significance. Examples include communities being forced off land to clear rainforest for agriculture; threats to safety, property, or crops from conflicts with wildlife with degraded habitats (e.g., elephants in Kenya; Munyao et al., 2020); illegal wildlife poaching (e.g., pangolin scale and rhino horn; 't Sas-Rolfes et al., 2019); and the deterioration of ecosystems like wetlands or coral reefs and their services (e.g., for subsistence, recreation, or protection). Such consequences and experiences can induce strong emotional and psychological responses (e.g., grief, anger, stress, depression) with potentially severe impacts on health. ...
We see unique opportunities to advance emotion research by studying an overlooked environmental problem. The biodiversity crisis is caused by land use, in particular by reducing and damaging habitats, such as deforestation for cattle grazing. Biodiversity processes are proximate and personally moving, like when a person is causing or experiencing changes to livelihood-providing ecosystems, and we suggest this affect- rich context is useful for studying social and psychological processes. In contrast, much research on far-away populations thinking about climate change effects involves more abstract and distant cognitions. We also suggest biodiversity-related emotions have consequential outcomes for health and behavior, and provide advice for shaping research programs on specific populations and wildlife interactions.
... There are 100 spatial points of HEC incident sites were recorded using GPS based on the 1: 50 000 scale topographical maps and Google Earth Pro. Figure 2 shows a methodological flowchart highlighting the HEC landscape level interactions in the MER. This chart has been drawn from previous works that have identified underlying factors of HEC in general (Mariki et al., 2015;Munyao et al., 2020;Ngene & Omondi, 2008). ...
... The study of annual patterns of HEC incident was based on monthly total of the year 2020 and 2021. Descriptive statistics like mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) were used to show the distribution of HEC events and its spatio-temporal variations (Gubbi, 2012;Jachowski et al., 2013;Munyao et al., 2020). These statistics were used for the analysis of HEC incidents and its monthly, seasonal patterns. ...
... In some cases, frequency distribution was carried out to show the seasonal distribution of HEC incidents. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used in most of the variables to assess whether there was a significant difference in HEC events (Munyao et al., 2020) among the different groups like years, seasons, and distance from the dense forest boundary of the MER. Generally, elephant threat refers the HEC which is directly caused by elephants but in this study, elephant threat refers to the state where elephants are found in areas of high human activity and where their presence leads to apprehension without resulting to any damage (Munyao et al., 2020). ...
Mayurjharna Elephant Reserve (MER) is one of the important Elephant Reserve (ER) in southern West Bengal, India. Dense forest, natural water bodies, human habitation, agricultural land, roads and more than 100 wild elephants are present in this elephant reserve. Due to increasing human population density and changing land-use patterns incessantly the naturally dwelling place of the wild elephants has been reduced a lot. As a result of the reduced dwelling spaces, the elephants sometimes enter into the human used areas for searching their basic requirements and then the conflict is started. This conflict is a complex interaction between human and elephant and it is a burning problem not only in the MER but also in southern West Bengal. This research article is an outcome of the empirical investigation to chalk out the spatio-temporal patterns of Human—Elephant Conflict (HEC) in the MER and to yield information helpful for HEC mitigation and elephant conservation. The identified forms of HEC in the MER are elephant threat, crop raiding, property damage, injury to people, human death, elephant death, elephant injury, and livestock death. Here elephant threat is considered as indirect and the rest forms are considered as direct impact of HEC. Among them the elephant threat is counted for the highest number of incidents (60.36%), followed by crop raiding (33.58%), property damage (3.40%), human injury (0.85%), human death (0.74%), elephant death (0.43%), livestock death (0.53%) and elephant injury (0.11%). A dataset on HEC incidents (N = 941) occurred by wild elephants which were collected from the villages within this ER during the survey period (2020–2021). Here the HEC arises throughout the year, but in October (27.95%) and November (24.87%) months having the highest number of incidents. Most of the crop raiding events (51%) occur at a distance of less than 1.0 km far from the dense forest and such events were gradually decreased in respect of increasing distance from the MER. Descriptive statistics, correlation (r), One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to explain the HEC patterns of the concerned study area. Arc GIS 10.6 software was also used for the preparation of land use and land cover (LULC) map and conflict risk map through Kernel Density Estimation Model (KDEM).
... In Taita Taveta County, Kenya, where Tsavo National Park is located and where the greatest density of Kenyan elephants resides, over 62% of the reported HWC involved threats to people by elephants (Munyao et al., 2020). In Narok County, Kenya, where the Maasai Mara National Reserve is located, the three principal types of HWC were also crop raiding (50%), attack on humans (27.3%) and livestock depredation (17.6%) but in a different order of importance, with the most prominent problem wildlife being similarly elephant (46.2%), monkey species (19.5%), and then buffalo (Syncerus caffer) (10.6%), zebra (Equus quagga) (7.6%), leopard (7.3%), spotted hyena (5.8%) and lion (Panthera leo) (3%) (Mukeka et al., 2019). ...
We discuss various human‐wildlife conflicts (HWC) inherent within communities bordering a mid‐sized, semi‐porous wildlife conservancy in Kenya. HWC are a growing issue as human population expands into wildlife habitat to put people and wildlife in more frequent contact and compete for scarce resources. In 2018, we surveyed the crop‐raiding and livestock depredation experiences of 918 households from 10 separate villages and asked about the experiences of the villagers with HWC over the past 3 years. These communities are protected from wildlife with two different fence designs, a standard 12‐strand electrical fence, and an upgraded predator‐proof fence design. We found that between 70% and 91% of respondents had experienced some form of HWC including 39.5% who reported threats to their person from wildlife encroachments despite electrical perimeter fencing. HWC happened more often at night and during the dry seasons. The most common encroachments were from elephants, hyenas, leopards, and baboons. Community respondents rated that the upgraded predator‐proof fences performed better than the standard 12‐strand fences. However, even the predator‐proof design had issues with keeping monkeys from entering the communities and crop raiding. We discuss potential mitigation measures, including an improved predator‐proof fencing design that incorporates butterfly stingers that may offer better protection.
... The SGR is not an exception and there have been reports of negative ecosystem impacts of the SGR. In this case, disruption of movement and migration of wildlife, behavioral modification among species, bisections of basins and watersheds [5], and the physical disruption of the structure and compositions of ecosystems [6]. Similarly, there has been an increase in water, soil, and air pollution, grassland fires, and alteration of predator-prey relationship [7]. ...
Transport infrastructure development can have significant negative impacts on natural resources over time and space, making it crucial to undertake careful consideration to minimize damage to both natural and artificial features. The objective of this study was to assess the magnitude of the environmental impacts caused by the standard gauge railway (SGR) from Nairobi Terminus to Nachu station in Kiambu county. The research approach used in collecting data, interpreting and analyzing the data was both quantitative and qualitative research. The study used a detailed GIS and remote sensing (RS) baseline environmental assessment and interviews to identify social and environmental impacts and proposed mitigation measures for the SGR project during and after implementation which is from 2016 to 2019. The results show that there was a 3.6% increase of built-up areas along the SGR line, while grassland, forest, and cropland decreased by 2.5%, 2.6%, and 13%, respectively. Increase in built-up areas has been identified to be around the railway station and also along the buffer zone The drivers of this change were mainly attributed to urbanization. Negative environmental effects of the SGR included encroachment on conservation areas, disruption of human settlement, and reduction of forest and vegetation cover. Noise and air pollution from SGR construction and operation affected wildlife, vegetation, and human settlements. To mitigate these negative impacts, this study recommends a number of measures including the wet-spraying of cement and wet drilling to reduce dust emissions during construction, frequent investigations of construction sites, afforestation, and GIS analysis to locate the most suitable SGR routes. Moreover. In conclusion, this study highlights the negative environmental impacts of the SGR project from Nairobi Terminus to Nachu station in Kiambu county. The results suggest that the project caused significant environmental degradation, particularly in terms of reduced forest and vegetation cover, and encroachment on conservation areas. The proposed mitigation measures can help reduce these negative impacts and minimize future damage caused by transport infrastructure development.
... Livestock and wildlife management are practiced in the conservation areas including areas allocated for only wildlife grazing and browsing, and areas for mixed grazing by wildlife and livestock. Furthermore, to reduce wildlife-human conflict and conserve wildlife, 33 km long electric fence that separates wildlife from human activities (settlement and agriculture) was established in 1999 as a management strategy of human-wildlife conflicts (Amara et al., 2020;Munyao et al., 2020). ...
... The highlands were not considered due to the wildlife and livestock grazing managements are located mainly in the lowlands. The identified LMC areas in the lowlands are: A) areas under wildlife browsing and grazing and fenced to the NE-side to protect wildlife from human activities, wildlife activity in this site is dominant and characterized by high elephant density (Amara et al., 2020;Munyao et al., 2020); B) area under moderate livestock grazing and fuelwood extraction, wildlife access to this site is limited by wired fence; C) land under mixed wildlife and livestock grazing; D) areas outside fence and mainly used for different human activities (agriculture, settlement, etc.). Second, using SFTS approach, the mean difference in tc LST, bc T s, modelled , and T soil, modelled over these areas were computed to understand impact of LMC change on surface and soil temperature. ...
Impacts of land cover conversion have been studied well from the top-of-canopy level using satellite observations. Yet, the warming or cooling impacts of land cover and management change (LCMC) from below-canopy level remain less explored. Here, we studied the below-canopy temperature change from field to landscape level across multiple LCMC in southeastern Kenya. To study this, in situ microclimate sensors, satellite observations, and high-resolution below-canopy temperature modelling approaches were used. Our results show that from field to landscape scale, forest to cropland conversion, followed by thicket to cropland change, generate higher surface temperature warming than other conversion types. At field scale, tree loss increases the mean soil temperature (measured at 6 cm below ground) more than the mean below-canopy surface temperature but its impact on the diurnal temperature range was higher on surface temperature than soil temperature in both forest to cropland and thicket to cropland/grassland conversions. At landscape scale, compared with top-of-canopy land surface temperature warming, which was estimated at Landsat overpass time (~10:30 a.m.), forest to cropland conversion generates ~3 °C higher below-canopy surface temperature warming. Land management change, through fencing of wildlife conservation areas and limiting mobility of mega browsers, can have an impact on woody cover and induce more below-canopy surface temperature warming than top-of-canopy in comparison with non-conservancy areas. These results indicate that human induced land changes can generate more below-canopy warming than inferred from top-of-canopy satellite observations. Together, the results highlight the importance of considering the climatic impacts of LCMC from both top-of-canopy and below-canopy level for effective mitigation of anthropogenic warming from land surface changes.
... Therefore, the proliferation of Asian elephants is inevitable. Many experts and scholars believe that the HEC is an inevitable practical problem [17,32,48]. Thus, it is crucial to explore how to protect Asian elephants and to cooperate with forest conservation and forest resources development in protected areas to mitigate humanelephant conflicts, based on a comprehensive analysis and summary of the experiences and lessons from the process of Asian elephants' migration northward. ...
In 2021, the northward migration of Asian elephants in southwestern China’s Yunnan Province attracted significant public attention. Exploring the behavior of Asian elephants will help to better protect this endangered species and further realize the harmonious coexistence of humans and elephants. Based on the news texts regarding the northward migration of Asian elephants, this study used network text analysis, social network analysis, and grounded theoretical research methods to explore the behavioral characteristics and internal motivations of Asian elephants during their northward migration. The results indicate that: (1) during the northward migration of Asian elephants, moving and foraging are their most frequent behaviors, and foraging may be the chief purpose of the migration. (2) Different behaviors of Asian elephants hide their behavioral choice preferences, including environmental, time, and behavioral preferences. During the migration, Asian elephants mostly move in low-altitude areas, often foraging or migrating around farmland in the afternoon or at night, returning to the mountains to rest in the early morning. Corn, rice, and other crops are their primary food; the change in their eating habits is influenced by the lack of herbs and woody plants inside the protected area. (3) The northward migration behavior of elephant herds is influenced by various factors, such as elephant population expansion, habitat change, and species migration characteristics, and the relationship between conservation and development needs to be balanced.
