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ANP-195, (A) Brain with lissencephaly; (B) hemispheric asymmetric; (C) and (D) cx, dysmorphic and balloon cells were observed (red arrows); (C) Bielschowsky and (D) H-E 40X.
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Secondary metabolites, also known as phytochemicals, natural products or plant constituents are responsible for medicinal
properties of plants to which they belong. The role they play in the plant is not, to date, well known or understood, but it may be beyond
the protection. Their classification is based on chemical structure, composition, their s...
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... To tackle the ever-rising requirement for anthocyanins, various biotechnological advancements have been documented to improve their yield. In vitro culture techniques for mass propagation and secondary metabolite biosynthesis have effectively optimized anthocyanin production independent of natural sources (Kabera et al. 2014;Yuan and Grotewold 2015). Precise selection and optimization of culture conditions such as basal nutrient medium constituents, pH, airflow, and agitation rate were some of the critical factors for achieving a higher yield of desired compounds in the plant cells or tissues (Jeandet et al. 2013). ...
... Precise selection and optimization of culture conditions such as basal nutrient medium constituents, pH, airflow, and agitation rate were some of the critical factors for achieving a higher yield of desired compounds in the plant cells or tissues (Jeandet et al. 2013). Moreover, genetic modification and manipulation in plants have been explored as lucrative approaches to tackle the rising industrial market demand for anthocyanins and to alter phenotypic modifications (Kabera et al. 2014). Advanced genetic and metabolic engineering techniques, including anthocyanins, have shown promise in improving the secondary metabolite yield. ...
... Advanced genetic and metabolic engineering techniques, including anthocyanins, have shown promise in improving the secondary metabolite yield. These techniques entail manipulating or introducing certain biosynthetic pathways related to diverse hosts, leading to enhanced production efficiency (Kabera et al. 2014;Yuan and Grotewold 2015). Advancements in culture techniques, such as the use of novel elicitors, gene editing, and bioreactors, have also brought encouraging results in the anthocyanin production (Jeandet et al. 2013). ...
Flowers have long been admired for their aesthetic qualities and have even found their way to be included in the human diet. Among the many chemical compounds found in flowers, anthocyanins stand out for their versatile applications in the food, cosmetic, and nutraceutical industries. The biosynthetic pathway of anthocyanins has been thoroughly studied in certain flower species, leading to the detection of key regulatory genes that can be controlled to enhance the production of anthocyanins via biotechnological methods. Nevertheless, the quantity and form of anthocyanins found in natural sources differ, both qualitatively and quantitatively, depending on the ornamental plant species. For this reason, research on in vitro plant cultures has been conducted for years in an attempt to comprehend how these essential substances are produced. Different biotechnological systems, like in vitro plant cell, organ, and tissue cultures, and transgenic approaches, have been employed to produce anthocyanins under controlled conditions. However, multiple factors influence the production of anthocyanins and create challenges during large-scale production. Metabolic engineering techniques have also been utilized for anthocyanin production in microorganisms and recombinant plants. Although these techniques are primarily tested at lab- and pilot-scale, limited studies have focused on scaling up the production. This review analyses the chemistry and biosynthesis of anthocyanin along with the factors that influence the biosynthetic pathway. Further emphasis has been given on strategies for conventional and non-conventional anthocyanin production along with their quantification, addressing the prevailing challenges, and exploring ways to ameliorate the production using the in vitro plant cell and tissue culture systems and metabolic engineering to open up new possibilities for the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food industries.
... The preliminary detection of similar phytochemicals was also reported in other studies (Banothu et al., 2017;Nayak et al., 2017). Plant phenolics and triterpenoid saponins constitute the important secondary metabolites, which possess antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial properties (Kabera et al., 2014, Ferrazzano et al., 2011. Therefore, it was reasonable to investigate their profile in various solvent extract from leaves and roots of D. macrocephala. ...
The objective of current study was to investigate total phenolic, flavonoids and triterpenoids content in various solvent extracts from leaves and roots of Dolomiaea macrocephala and their inhibitory effect against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Disc diffusion method was adopted to find out antibacterial and antifungal potential of various solvent extracts. Total phenolic, flavonoids and triterpenoids content were determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu, aluminium chloride colorimetric method and vanillin–glacial acetic acid method respectively. Their correlation with antimicrobial activities was statistically analyzed by Pearson's correlation coefficient method. The present study revealed highest phenolic and flavonoids content in methanol and aqueous extracts in both leaves and roots of D. macrocephala. The highest triterpenoid content was recorded in petroleum ether extract. Various solvents extract from leaves and roots showed significant bactericidal effect against both Gram Negative and Gram-Positive bacteria. However, only aqueous and methanol extracts of D. macrocephala exhibited remarkable zone of inhibition against post-harvest fungal pathogens. The Pearson’s correlation revealed a significant positive correlation between total phenolic and flavonoids content in various solvent extracts in both leaves and roots with their antibacterial activity. The findings from present study revealed that antibacterial activities of different solvent extracts from leaves and roots were due to highest phenolic and flavonoids content. Thus the study insight the presences of major bioactive compounds in plant extract and showed their potential antimicrobial application against antibiotic resistant bacteria.
Key words: Phytochemical screening, Disc diffusion assay, Pearson correlation, Solvent extracts, Total phenolic.
... Additionally, studies have documented that the antioxidant capacity of meat-type poultry birds is enhanced by different herbal extracts, thereby enhancing the shelf-life of their meat and products. Juskiewicz et al. [3] found that the fatty acid composition of meat-type poultry was altered by bioactive components of herbal extracts; however, inconsistent outcomes regarding the supplementation of poultry feed with herbal extracts have been documented in recent studies [4], which may be attributed to factors such as the bacterial challenge employed, the timing of the challenge, or the specific strain of bacteria used in the investigation [3]. Additionally, Ibrahim et al. [5] noted that incorporating thymol into poultry diets can improve BWG, feed conversion rate, and regulated FI in broilers with Salmonella Typhimurium. ...
Herbal extracts have been widely evaluated in poultry production for their beneficial effects and potential substitute for antibiotics, which contribute to AMR and risks to human health through the consumption of infected meat. Salmonellosis is a systemic infection caused by Salmonella, an intracellular bacterium with the ability to cause systemic infections with significant implications for both the health and safety of farmers and consumers. The excessive use of antibiotics has escalated the incidence of antibiotic resistance bacteria in the poultry and livestock industry, highlighting the urgent need for alternatives especially in meat-type poultry. Both in vivo usage and in vitro studies of bioactive compounds from herbal extracts have demonstrated the effective antimicrobial activities against pathogenic bacteria, showing promise in managing Salmonella infections and enhancing poultry performance. Phytobiotic feed additives have shown promising results in improving poultry output due to their pharmacological properties, such as stimulating consumption, and enhancing antioxidant properties and preventing the increasing antimicrobial resistance threats. Despite potential for synergistic effects from plant-derived compounds, a further investigation into is essential to fully understand their role and mechanisms of action, for developing effective delivery systems, and for assessing environmental sustainability in controlling Salmonella in poultry production.
... several sub-groups of flavonoids, the largest group of naturally occurring polyphenols that also include anthocyanidins, flavanols, flavanones, flavonols, and isoflavonoids (30,31). Biosynthesis of apigenin only occurs in certain plants and, broadly speaking, flavonoids inhibit the transport of auxin, a morphogen-like plant hormone controlling growth and development (30). ...
NAD⁺, a pivotal coenzyme central to metabolism, exhibits a characteristic decline with age. In mice, NAD⁺ levels can be elevated via treatment with apigenin, a natural flavonoid that inhibits the NAD⁺-consuming glycoprotein CD38. In animal models, apigenin positively impacts both sleep and longevity. For example, apigenin improves learning and memory in older mice, reduces tumor proliferation in a mouse xenograft model of triple-negative breast cancer, and induces sedative effects in mice and rats. Moreover, apigenin elongates survival in fly models of neurodegenerative disease and apigenin glycosides increase lifespan in worms. Apigenin’s therapeutic potential is underscored by human clinical studies using chamomile extract, which contains apigenin as an active ingredient. Collectively, chamomile extract has been reported to alleviate anxiety, improve mood, and relieve pain. Furthermore, dietary apigenin intake positively correlates with sleep quality in a large cohort of adults. Apigenin’s electron-rich flavonoid structure gives it strong bonding capacity to diverse molecular structures across receptors and enzymes. The effects of apigenin extend beyond CD38 inhibition, encompassing agonistic and antagonistic modulation of various targets, including GABA and inflammatory pathways. Cumulatively, a large body of evidence positions apigenin as a unique molecule capable of influencing both aging and sleep. Further studies are warranted to better understand apigenin’s nuanced mechanisms and clinical potential.
... Secondary metabolites or phytochemicals are valuable natural compounds with medicinal and practical applications, produced by plants in small quantities (Kabera et al., 2014;rehman et al., 2023). nanotechnology offers a platform to amplify phytochemical production. ...
This field study aimed to investigate the potential of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) to enhance various aspects of bitter gourd plant germination, growth, phytochemical composition and yield. Bitter gourd seeds were subjected to soaking in aerated solutions of ZnONPs at concentrations of 50 and 100 ppm for 24 and 48 hours, with hydro-primed seeds serving as the control group. Priming bitter gourd seeds with 100 ppm ZnONPs for 48 hours significantly improved germination, increased the number of fruits per plant, enhanced fruit density, and showed improvements in elevating the plant’s phytochemical profile. Notably, seed priming with 100 ppm ZnONPs for 48 hours resulted in a 29% increase in germination percentage. Furthermore, treatment with 100 ppm ZnONPs for 48 hours exhibited significant enhancements in key parameters such as the number of fruits per plant, fruit density, fruit length and fruit diameter, demonstrating increases of 41%, 29%, 29%, and 42.3%, respectively, compared to the control group. The application of ZnONPs at concentrations of 100 ppm for both 24 and 48 hours to bitter gourd seeds also led to substantial elevations in the plant’s phytochemical profile. Specifically, total phenolic content saw increments of 12% and 27%, total flavonoid content saw increments of 16% and 30%, and total charantin content saw increments of 12% and 29%, respectively, compared to the hydro-priming treatment. The study underscores the operational benefits of employing ZnONPs for seed priming, which positively influences germination, growth, phytochemical composition, and ultimately the yield of bitter gourd plants.
... Wild plants are an emerging source of biopharmaceuticals for their wide-ranged biological applicability Rhimi et al., 2018;Hasnain et al., 2022). Plants comprise of primary metabolites including carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats, and amino acids as well as secondary metabolites particularly terpenoids, alkaloids and phenolics (Kabera et al., 2014). Phenolics have benzene rings with different hydroxyl substituents which could be in the form of simple compounds or polymers (Lin et al., 2016). ...
... e. Shikimic acid: Aromatic alkaloids, aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan), cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, lignin, phenols and tannins [2,3] . ...
Plant secondary metabolites refer to various chemical compounds that plants produce. Still, they are not directly involved in essential growth processes like primary metabolites (such as sugars, amino acids, and lipids). The term "secondary metabolite" has generated controversy, as it implies these compounds are of minor importance to plants. "Special metabolites" may be a more suitable term. The plants are protected from both abiotic and biotic stress by these metabolites. The vast diversity of plant secondary metabolites showcases plants' incredible adaptability and versatility, providing an arsenal of chemical tools to defend against herbivores, protect from pathogens, attract pollinators and seed dispersers, adaptability and thrive and environmental interactions. Plants can therefore survive under less-than-ideal conditions. The profound impact of plant secondary metabolites highlights the intricate relationship between plants and humanity, opening doors to innovative applications with far-reaching implications. 1. Introduction Our daily diet must include plants, and their nutritional worth and contents have been the subject of extensive research for many years. In addition to essential primary metabolites, including lipids, amino acids, and carbohydrates, higher plants are capable of producing a variety of chemical molecules referred to as secondary metabolites. The chemical compounds formed from a series of enzyme-dependent chemical reactions are metabolites. This sum of the chemical reactions in an organism for the proper functioning of cells and organisms is called metabolism. The sequence of chemical reactions is known as metabolic pathways. The citric acid cycle and glycolysis produce energy used in these metabolic processes. The metabolism provides chemical compounds essential to maintain life, such as growth, development or reproduction in living organisms known as primary metabolism. The resulting end product(s) is termed primary metabolites. The term "secondary metabolite" refers to an organic substance that serves a purpose in a plant's ecology and is crucial to the defense of the plant but is not necessary for its growth and reproduction. The production of secondary metabolites may be limited to particular families, genera, and maybe even species, but levels are typically less, though not always. Secondary metabolites in annual plants are mostly contained in trichomes or glandular hairs (terpenoids in Asteraceae and Labiatae), stinging hairs (Amines in Urticaceae), or the epidermis itself (alkaloids, flavonoids of various classes, anthocyanins, cyanogenic glycosides, coumarins, etc.). Usual sources of secondary metabolites include flowers, fruits, and seeds. Secondary metabolites are mostly found in perennial species' roots, rhizomes, bulbs, bark and stems. Primary metabolites provide building blocks for secondary metabolites. The type of primary metabolites provides building blocks for secondary metabolites such as S-methyl of L-methionine (C1 methyl group); Acetyl-Co A (C2 ethyl group); Mevalonic acid (C5 branched-chain five carbon unit "isoprene"); L-ornithine (non-protein amino acid); C4N unit (heterocyclic pyrrolidine system); L-phenylalanine or L-tyrosine (The phenyl propyl unit C6C3 and C6C2N); L-lysine (C5N as a piperidine ring system) and L-tryptophan (Indole C2N). Secondary metabolites are synthesized by building blocks provided by primary metabolism. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids are examples of primary metabolites. Secondary metabolites include alkaloids, essential oil, glycosides, tannins etc. Different metabolic pathways for secondary metabolites and their end products are: a. Acetate pathway: Aliphatic amino acids, alkaloids and proteins. b. Amino acids pathway: Alkaloids and protein. c. Malonic acid pathway: Flavonoids, tannins, fat and waxes. d. Mevalonic acid: Steroids and terpenes. Shikimic acid: Aromatic alkaloids, aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan), cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, lignin, phenols and tannins.
... They contribute to nutrition and the development of pharmaceuticals, as well as find applications in cosmetics, perfume, and agrochemical formulations (Li et al. 2020). Depending on the structures and biosynthetic pathways, plant secondary metabolites are usually classified into three major groups such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids (Kabera et al. 2014). Polyphenols are present in almost all plant species. ...
In recent times, it has been challenging to reliably extract a sufficient quantity of plant secondary metabolites from seasonal plants. The main objective of this study was to develop a specialized medium for the modulation of secondary metabolites production in the tuber of Gloriosa superba L., which was derived from callus tissue. Initially, Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium supplemented with 2,4-D, Kin, NAA, or IBA were used in combination for callogenesis, and BAP alone or in combination with GA3 was used for the regeneration of multiple shoot and tuber. Further, the effect of six different PGRs (BAP, Kin, NAA, IBA, 2,4-D, and GA3) was assessed to determine their impact on the production of colchicine and quercetin in tubers. The content of colchicine and quercetin in the tuber were determined by RP-HPLC. The highest percentage of callus induction was observed on the MS medium supplemented with 2.0 mg/L Kin, 2.0 mg/L NAA, and 0.5 mg/L 2,4-D. The maximum number of multiple shoot was obtained on the MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L BAP and 0.5 mg/L GA3. The highest amount (2.30 ± 0.07 mg/g dry extract) of colchicine was found in the tuber grown on the MS medium supplemented with IBA, while the highest amount of quercetin (15.58 ± 0.28 µg/g dry extract) was obtained in the tuber grown on the MS medium supplemented with BAP. Therefore, specific PGRs can be used to enhance the production of colchicine and quercetin before harvesting the tubers that contain low levels of these compounds.
... Scientific research has demonstrated the efficacy of traditional medicines that contain essential oils in treating a variety of illnesses like malaria and other microbial origin diseases. According to recent research (Kabera et al., 2014), benzylisothiocyanate has chemopreventive, antibacterial and antioxidant activities. According to Kris-Etherton et al. (2002), limonene, linalool, myrcene-pinene and -terpineol are well-known antibacterial, antioxidant, immune-stimulating, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, chemopreventive and therapeutic agents against tumor cells. ...
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation of Carica papaya essential oil (CPEO) on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens. 200 1-day Cobb 500 chicks of mixed sex were used for the seven weeks trials. In a completely randomized design 100 birds were randomly distributed into 4 groups consisting of 10 birds. Each treatment group has 5 replicates, birds in group 1 (G1) was fed basal diet with no Carica papaya essential oil, G2, G3 and G4 were fed basal diet with 100 mg, 200 mg and 300 mg/kg respectively. Clean water was supplied ad libitum. Results on overall growth performance revealed that average daily weight gain, average daily feed intake were higher (P˂0.05) in G2, G3 and G4 relative to G1. Mortality and feed conversion ratio were significantly (P˂0.05) influenced by dietary supplementation of CPEO. Higher mortality was observed in G1 while none was recorded in other treatments (P˂0.05). Dressed weight, eviscerated weight and dressing percentage were higher (P˂0.05) in G2, G3 and G4 than in other treatment group. Weight of legs, heart, spleen, gizzard, thigh, breast, back, drum stick and neck were significantly (P˂0.05) different among the groups except for the weights of the head, spleen and livers (P˃0.05). It was concluded that CPEO can be supplemented up to 300 mg/kg in the diets of broilers without negatively affecting their general performance and health status.
... Alkaloids belong to the group of plant secondary metabolites that contains a basic nitrogen atom in the compound. In addition to the nitrogen atom alkaloids may also contain sulphur and oxygen atoms (Kabera et al., 2014;Chauhan et al., 2017). Most of the alkaloids produced by plants are toxic and are generally produced as a defense molecule against other organisms. ...
India is one of the nation blessed with a rich heritage of traditional medical systems and rich biodiversity to complement the herbal needs of the treatment administered by these traditional medical systems. The recognized Indian Systems of Medicine are Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani, which use herbs and minerals in the formulations. The antioxidant compounds are mostly produced in plants in the form of secondary metabolites. Phytochemicals can be literally referred to as ‘plant-chemicals’. They are the non-nutritive chemical components of plants that possess numerous health benefits and disease prevention properties. Leaf chlorophyll concentration is an important parameter that is regularly measured as an indicator of chloroplast content, photosynthetic mechanism and of plant metabolism. Chlorophyll is an antioxidant compounds which are present and stored in the chloroplast of green leaf plants and mainly it is present in the green area of leaves, stems, flowers and roots. The aim of this study was to observe antioxidant activity from the leaves of S. caryophyllatum and S. cumini and also to evaluate the qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis. The present study emphasizes the pharmacognostical study of the plant, chief chemical constituents, present in the plant S. caryophyllatum and S. cumini, and their pharmacological properties. The selected plants (S. caryophyllatum and S. cumini) have been used as a source for the development of medicines and neutraceuticals. Both plant samples contained bioactive chemicals that have pharmacological or toxicological effects. Both showed the presence of secondary metabolites such as steroids, glycosides, phenolics, tannins, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and alkaloids. Plant extracts antioxidant activity may be attributed to their phenolic and flavonoid content. Because of their phytoconstituents, antioxidants, and antibacterial properties, plants offer enormous potential for use in the pharmaceutical business and medicine.
