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Th is investigation focuses on the multivariate analysis of the vegetation of the Hindu Kush and Himalayan ranges of Pakistan, concentrating on the dynamics of Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don. Th e study includes 47 stands from 23 diff erent locations in the Himalayan region of Pakistan. Th e point-centred quarter method and 1.5-m radius circ...
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... The multi-response permutation procedure (MRPP) test was employed to determine whether there was a noteworthy variation in the plant communities' species composition. The plant species distribution pattern in various ordination planes, the species-environment correlation, and the order (ranking) and significance of explanatory variables in influencing the species distribution pattern in the study area were also investigated using detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) (Ahmed et al., 2011;Hill and Gauch Jr, 1980;Ter Braak, 1986). Consequently, the overall significance testing defining the degree of vegetation-environment connection was investigated in the initial stage of the CCA model evaluation. ...
The composition, structure and distribution of vegetation are influenced by diverse environmental factors. Such research inquiries provide the initial data for future conservation and management efforts. The study area of North Waziristan district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan comprises diverse forests of the Spin Ghar Mountain Range (at the border areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan), and a highly remote, mountainous, and unexplored region. There was little information on the complex relationships that existed between the study area's ambient environment and vegetation. This study hypothesized that the varying environmental complexity in the study area and vegetation variety may be significantly correlated, and the ranking of leading influencing factors might enhance our ecological understanding. A total of 61 study sites comprising 183 transects (50 m each) were randomly selected to record the vegetation-environment data from January-2018 to December-2020 (3 years). Monte Carlo permutation testing, hierarchical clustering of study samples, indicator species analysis, and ordination were applied to assess the sampling data. The results indicated that there were a total of 391 vascular plant species which were further classified into seven significantly different (p < 0.05) plant assemblages, each comprising of a distinct species makeup. A variety of different environmental variables (topographic (06), bioclimatic (19), edaphic (09), remote sensing, and anthropogenic predictors (16)) were considered. Simple term effects testing results depicted the significant (p(adj) < 0.05) role of 39 variables initially, whereas, conditional term effects testing (with variance inflation factor (VIF) threshold value of < 10, and forward selecting variables that provided the most unique information) results highlighted the prominent role of eight (08) contributors. The results of the latter analysis ranked the mean temperature of the warmest quarter (Bio10) as the most influencing factor, followed by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), longitude, continuous heat insulation load index (CHILI), precipitation of the warmest quarter (Bio18), global human modification of the terrestrial systems (gHM), organic carbon density (OCD), and annual precipitation (Bio12). This study concluded that the vegetation variability in the study area was significantly correlated with the prevailing environment, and considered bioclimatic and remote sensing factors were better key indicators for any vegetation distribution when the study was conducted on a large spatial scale. Based on these results, the anticipated future variations in climate, particularly global warming, lengthy drought spells, and population explosion might remarkably lead to decline in local plant species richness and distribution. For the study area to guard its priceless biodiversity for future generations, careful and prompt conservation and management planning are required.
... The split-period calibration/verification investigation encompassed various for tolerance range to various environmental conditions (Ahmed et al. 2011a). Commonly known as the Himalayan Blue Pine, it is found in the Karakoram, Himalayan, and Hindu Kush mountain ranges in northern Pakistan, typically between an elevation ranged from 1800 and 3900 meters above sea level (m asl) (Singh and Yadav 2007;Ahmed et al. 2011b). Notably, we observed very less or no human influence and other natural disturbances in the studied area. ...
The Hindu Kush high-altitude regions of Pakistan are currently experiencing severe consequences as a result of global warming. In this sense, increasing soil erosion and the quick melting of glaciers are two particularly evident effects. In such a scenario, understanding long-term temperature changes is crucial for making accurate forecasts about how the Hindu Kush region may experience regional temperature changes in the future. In this study, the climate tree-ring width (TRW) analysis designated a positive and significant correlation (r = 0.622, p < 0.001) between the TRW chronology and the June to September (summer) mean maximum temperature (MMT). Using the tree-ring width of Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson, we reconstructed summer temperatures in the Hindu Kush region from 1790 CE. Statistical analysis showed that the reconstruction model has explained 38.7% of the climate variance during the instrumental period of 1967 to 2018 CE. Five extremely warm summer periods (≥ 4 years; before the instrumental period 1967–2018 CE) of 1804–1830, 1839–1862, 1876–1879, 1905–1910, 1923–1935 CE, and six cold summer periods of 1790–1803, 1832–1838, 1863–1875, 1880–1904, 1911–1922, and 1936–1945 CE have been observed during the past 229 years. Individually, the year 1856 CE experienced severe warmth (31.85 °C), whereas 1794 CE was relatively cooler (29.60 °C). The spectral multi-taper method (MTM) shows significant (p < 0.05) cycles, which take place about every 9.3, 5.7, 4.2, and 3.6 years. In particular, the 9.3-year cycle, which closely aligns with the 11-year solar activity cycle, suggests a potential correlation between solar activity and local temperature fluctuations. Moreover, our reconstruction demonstrates a significant degree of consistency when compared to actual climate data and regional temperature reconstruction series, reporting a strong logic of trust in the reliability and accuracy of our findings. This evidence reaffirms that our reconstruction shows significant and dependable regional temperature signals, notably being representative for the Hindu Kush region.
... The restrictions on the felling of green trees since 1996, have also resulted in a greater proportion of the trees of upper diameter classes in the forest. In comparison, the value of stem density in our study lies between the ranges reported by Moinuddin et al. (2011) for deodar communities at different altitudes in Pakistan. The presence of small-diameter trees and the absence of large-diameter trees may be the cause of the increased tree density. ...
... Tree ring-analysis and developing chronology Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks (hereafter P. wallichiana) is one of the important and common dominant species in the mid elevation zones and near the timberline in the Hindu Kush region of northern Pakistan (Rehman et al. 2018) and has a wide ecological amplitude and tolerance range (Ahmed et al. 2011a). It is commonly referred to as Himalayan blue pine, which grows in the Karakoram, Himalayan, and Hindu Kush mountain ranges in northern Pakistan between 1800 and 3900 meters above sea level (m asl) (Singh and Yadav 2007;Ahmed et al. 2011b). Notably, we observed very less or no human intervention and other natural disturbances in the studied area. ...
The Hindu Kush high-altitude regions of Pakistan are currently experiencing severe consequences as a result of global warming. In this sense, increasing soil erosion and the quick melting of glaciers are two particularly evident effects. In such a scenario, understanding long-term temperature changes is crucial for making accurate forecasts about how the Hindu Kush region may experience regional temperature changes in the future. In this study, the climate tree-ring width (TRW) analysis designated a positive and significant correlation (r = 62.2, p < 0.001) between the TRW chronology and the June to September (summer) mean maximum temperature (MMT). Using the tree-ring width of Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks, we reconstructed summer temperatures in the Hindu Kush region from C.E. 1790. Statistical analysis showed that the reconstruction model has explained 38.7% of the climate variance during the instrumental period of C.E. 1967 to 2018. Five extremely warm summer periods (≥ 4 years; before the instrumental period C.E. 1967–2018) of C.E. 1804–1830, 1839–1862, 1876–1879, 1905–1910, 1923–1935, and six cold summer periods, i.e., 1790–1803, 1832–1838, 1863–1875, 1880–1904, 1911–1922, and 1936–1945, have been observed during the past 229 years. Individually, the year C.E. 1856 (31.85°C) had severe warmth, whereas C.E. 1794 (29.60°C) was observed with extreme cold. The spectral multi-taper method (MTM) shows significant (p < 0.05) cycles, which take place about every 9.3, 5.7, 4.2, and 3.6 years. In particular, the 9.3-year cycle, which closely aligns with the 11-year solar activity cycle, suggests a potential correlation between solar activity and local temperature fluctuations. Moreover, our reconstruction demonstrates a significant degree of consistency when compared to actual data and regional temperature reconstruction series, instilling a strong logic of trust in the reliability and accuracy of our findings. This evidence reaffirms that our reconstruction shows significant and dependable regional temperature signals, notably for the Hindu Kush region.
... Cluster and two-way clusters are used for the classification and understanding of the distribution pattern of species [15]. On the other hand, detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) is used to identify various vegetation groups, communities and associations [16]. ...
Plant species composition, diversity and distribution is a hierarchical expression of vegetation determined by different environmental factors. A study was conducted to document the floristic composition and biological spectrum of plant species of the Matta-Kharari region, Swat. The region has not been ecologically explored yet. We used quantitative ecological techniques for sampling plant species. Sixty-seven quadrats of 1x1 m2 for herbs, 5x5 m2 for shrubs and 10x10 m2 size for trees were established. Plant species data were analyzed using multivariate statistical techniques. We evaluated 76 plant species belonging to 42 families. Asteraceae and Rosaceae were the leading families with 8 species each, followed by Ranunculaceae, Lamiaceae and Moraceae with 4 species each. Among life form classes i.e., geophytes were dominant (13 species, 17.10 %), followed by therophytes (12 species, 15.87 %), nanophanerophytes (11 species, 14.47 %), and chamaephytes (10 species, 13.58 %). Moreover, Mesophylls (36.84 %) were the dominant leaf spectra class followed by nanophyll (30.26 %), microphyll (27.63 %), and megaphyll (2.63 %). The two-way cluster analysis classified the vegetation into three clusters. The detrended correspondence analysis shows the distribution of plants in a mixed array because the locations explored are characterized by similar climatic factors and vegetation. We elucidate that the variation in climatic factors and topography brings variation in vegetation. Understanding these responses at the life form and leaf spectra level will provide a better understanding and knowledge that how plant species and their communities or associations respond to changes in climate in the future. The current study could be utilized as a baseline for large-scale studies in the future.
... This tree is found in portions of Tibet, western Nepal, north Pakistan and north central India. This tree can only be found in the dry parts of the Himalayas since it cannot survive in moist environments (AHMED et al. 2011). Oil has been employed in the pharmaceutical industry in the past. ...
The world is now experiencing the first real global energy crisis, the effects of which will be felt for many years to come. Fossil fuels have accounted for more than 80% of the world’s energy requirements for decades. The cost of coal has reached record highs, while the price of oil reached at it’s peak in the middle of 2022 at well over 100 US dollars per barrel before declining. Rising energy costs of fossil fuels are driving a significant wealth shift from consumers to producers. The primary causes of the growing level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are fossil fuels. Stated Policy Scenario predicts a 1% annual growth in primary energy demand through 2030, which will be mostly satisfied by greater usage of renewable energy sources. Biodiesel is gaining popularity as a means of supplying energy since it is a renewable fuel, non-toxic, biodegradable, and locally available using recycled or agricultural materials with a lesser environmental effect. Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of short-chain esters, made by using numerous resources, which can be used (alone or blended with conventional diesel) in an unmodified diesel engine. The greenhouse gas emission for biodiesel is 74% lesser as compared to diesel fuel. With the widespread implementation of blending rules, the usage of biofuels rises to 5.5 million barrels of oil equivalent per day (mboe/day) in 2030 from 2.2 mboe/day in 2022. This study explores the numerous rare biodiesel feedstock, production, fatty acid content, physical properties and their effect on diesel engine output behaviour. These resources contain a large amount of free fatty acids and triglycerides which are usually used in the preparation of biodiesel. Since biodiesel has a higher oxygen content and a lower energy content than diesel fuel, it often offers better brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, NOx emission, and decreased HC, CO and smoke emissions at some blending ratio. The exhaust gas recirculation assembly in the engine reduces the NOx emission. The incorporation of non-additive in biodiesel blend acts as a catalyst during the combustion process and improves engine combustion by increasing the surface area of combustion. Biodiesel is clean energy and can be a promising future energy source for diesel engines.
... The commercially managed forests are at large scale, while the protection and community managed forests are partly managed under selection working system for timber production for commercial and domestic purposes. In Pakistan, some of the researchers focused their attention on the species composition and stand structure of these forests (Ahmed et al., 2009;Ahmed et al., 2011). Regarding the GSV, these forests are managed under documented plans in the respective forest divisions. ...
Using inventory data, this study evaluates the species composition, growing stock volume (GSV), and biomass
carbon (BMC) of the five major timber species in the sub-tropical, and temperate/sub-alpine regions of Pakistan.
It was found that the stem density varies between 50 and 221 trees ha -1, with a mean of 142 trees ha-1 (13.68
million trees for entire forest area). Among the species, Pinus wallichiana showed a high species composition
(27.80%) followed by Picea smithiana (24.64%). The GSV was found in the range of 67.81 to 425.94 m3 ha-1, with a
total GSV value of 20.68 million m3 for the entire region. Similarly, The BMC ranged from 27.04 to 169.86 Mg ha-1,
with a mean BMC value of 86.80 Mg ha-1. The total amount of stored carbon was found at 8.69 million tons for a
total of 95842 ha of commercially managed forest. Furthermore, the correlation analysis between the basal area
(BA) and GSV and BMC showed that BA is the best predictor of GSV and BMC. The findings provide insights to the
policy makers and forest managers regarding the sustainable commercial forest management as well as forest
carbon management in the recent global carbon management for climate change mitigation.
... The commercially managed forests are at large scale, while the protection and community managed forests are partly managed under selection working system for timber production for commercial and domestic purposes. In Pakistan, some of the researchers focused their attention on the species composition and stand structure of these forests (Ahmed et al., 2009;Ahmed et al., 2011). Regarding the GSV, these forests are managed under documented plans in the respective forest divisions. ...
Using inventory data, this study evaluates the species composition, growing stock volume (GSV), and biomass carbon (BMC) of the five major timber species in the sub-tropical, and temperate/sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. It was found that the stem density varies between 50 and 221 trees ha -1, with a mean of 142 trees ha-1 (13.68 million trees for entire forest area). Among the species, Pinus wallichiana showed a high species composition (27.80%) followed by Picea smithiana (24.64%). The GSV was found in the range of 67.81 to 425.94 m3 ha-1, with a total GSV value of 20.68 million m3 for the entire region. Similarly, The BMC ranged from 27.04 to 169.86 Mg ha-1, with a mean BMC value of 86.80 Mg ha-1. The total amount of stored carbon was found at 8.69 million tons for a total of 95842 ha of commercially managed forest. Furthermore, the correlation analysis between the basal area (BA) and GSV and BMC showed that BA is the best predictor of GSV and BMC. The findings provide insights to the policy makers and forest managers regarding the sustainable commercial forest management as well as forest carbon management in the recent global carbon management for climate change mitigation.
... However, some extreme drought events in the region are very severe and persistent [29]. Singh et al. [30] reported that the preceding October precipitation limited the growth of C. deodar, while Ahmed et al. [31] found no such effect. Bhattacharya et al. [19] carried out the research on chronology building. ...
Several researches related to dendrochronological field are carried out in Nepal. Silvicultural characteristics, distribution, associated species, climatic response of the species are very essential to understand the nature of species before conducting dendrochronological research. The objective of this research is to assess the dendrochronological potentiality of the major tree species so far studied in Nepal. For this, we have used Google engine to search published articles through March 2020 and listed out the name of the species used so far for the dendrochronological studies in Nepal. We were able to record the species Abies pindrow, Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis, Cedrus deodara, Cupressus torulosa, Larix potaninii, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Rhodendendron campanulatum, Tsuga dumusa and Ulmus wallichiana from the published research articles and review articles till March 2020. We have also accessed why the dendrochronologist has chosen these species for their research in Nepal. It was found that most of them are Himalayan conifers and have climatic signals with clear annual tree rings which can be easy to date with each other.
... Following the observational vegetation surveys by Champion et al. [19] and Beg [22], plenty of quantitative phytosociological studies have been conducted across the nation by several researchers. Ahmed et al. [23] carried out an extensive quantitative sampling in the Deodar forests of the Hindu Kush and Himalayan ranges of Pakistan, and they identified Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, P. gerardiana, and Abies pindrow as the dominant species in the recorded plant communities. Phytosociological work from Ayubia National Park [24] was reported three decades ago, and it was reported about a decade ago in the Sarsawa Hills, District Kotli of Azad Kashmir [25]. ...
The current research was carried out to characterize the phytosociology of the forests of one of Pakistan's most valuable tree species (Deodar) across its native range. In this context, our main hypothesis was that, along the altitudinal gradient, we would find different plant communities that would be driven by different environmental variables (climatic, edaphic, and physiographic). Therefore, to assess the vegetation structure of the pure Deodar forests of the unexplored Manoor Valley (Northwestern Himalaya), Pakistan, frequent field visits were carried out during different seasons of 2015-2018. Ecological methods: Line transects sampling (23 stands) and phytosociologi-cal attributes were evaluated in relation to geographical and environmental variables. Various statistical software applications (i.e., PCORD, RStudio 4.0, and R 3.6.1) were used to examine all of the gathered data of plant species and environmental variables. A total of three different plant communities (Cedrus-Isodon-Cynodon, Cedrus-Cynodon-Dryopteris, and Sambucus-Cedrus-Desmodium) were identified by grouping 162 species and 23 stands in pure Deodar forests under the influence of geographic , slope, edaphic, and climatic variables, ranging from 1580.8 to 2373.8 m. The altitude (1936-2373 m), slope angle (25-85°), sandy (29-48%) and loamy soil texture, wind speed (1.45 ms −1), and temperature (25.8 °C) all had a strong influence on the Sambucus-Cedrus-Desmodium community. In contrast with this, the Cedrus-Cynodon-Dryopteris community showed a positively significant relationship with the northeastern slope, silty (32-58%) and sandy (15.8-55%) loamy soil texture , and barometric pressure (814.3 pa). Nonetheless, the Cedrus-Isodon-Cynodon community revealed a significant positive association with the northeastern to southwestern slope, pH (6.3), wet bulb (19.7), and dew point (17.7). We found significant differences (p < 0.001) among the three communities found in the pure Deodar forests in the four diversity indexes. The Sambucus-Cedrus-Des-modium community has the maximum number of plants (129 species), Shannon's diversity (H' = 3.7), and Simpson's dominance (0.98) values among the recorded communities. The Pielou's even-ness index value was led by the Cedrus-Isodon-Cynodon community (0.97). Beta diversity showed a dissimilarity lower than 50% among the three communities. Simple term effects in the canonical correspondence analysis model revealed significant (p < 0.05) differences in altitude, slope angle, slope (southeastern), and wind speed variables. The present investigation sheds light on vegetation pattern and species contribution as a function of environmental gradients and provides a baseline for future studies.
