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... two pellets are physically linked together on one side, usually with a small strip of copper, and mounted between two ceramic outer plates that provide electrical isolation and structural integrity. A single thermoelectric couple, as shown in Figure 1,is generally of limited practical use, as the rate of useful power generated due to the Seebeck effect is very small. Practical thermoelectric modules are constructed with several of these thermoelectric couples connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel, with modules typically containing a minimum of three thermoelectric couples, as shown in Figure 2, rising to 127 couples for larger devices [5]. ...
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Citations
... Thermoelectric energy scavenging is a quite simple, robust and cost-effective solution to drain energy from ubiquitous temperature gradients generated by different heat sources such photovoltaic [6] [7], heat wasted form industrial processes [8] [9], human activity [10] [11], or hybrid electric vehicle among others [12]- [14]. However, the use of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) can be challenging when small temperature gradients are available which, in turn, results in low output voltages [15]- [19]. When a TEG-based harvesting system must be designed, a performance benchmarking would result of great interest for designers [20] as well as for the optimal configuration in modules interconnection [18] [19]. ...
... where the terms related to the steady-state current and voltage of the TEM are generally orders of magnitude lower than the temperature uncertainty and therefore negligible in terms of error contribution. If the thermal conductance of the reference medium is expected to be constant over a large range of temperatures, then equation (14) can be solved directly for a specific value of or for different values by means of error minimization with weights obtained from (15). Otherwise ( ) can also be estimated from (14), but the confidence intervals should be carefully evaluated especially for lower values of Δ . ...
In this paper, we present an improved version of the unified method (UM) for thermo-electric modules (TEM) characterization with the aim to reduce the overall parameters uncertainty. The parameters that make up the commonly accepted figure of merit Z or zT are mainly affected by temperature related uncertainty, which also significantly limit the precision of the test conditions and thus the reliability of derived models. To overcome these limitations, we conceived a novel and simplified measurement setup that relies at the same time on thermistor technology rather than thermocouple and on a lower number of required components. The improved setup, exploits a solid calibration procedure to reduce the uncertainty in temperature measurements from 1.4 °C typical of a J-type thermocouple (Class 1 IEC-EN 60584-2) to 0.027 °C with calibrated thermistors, leading to a previously unachievable millidegree-precision temperature control and to an uncertainty drop of two orders of magnitude in all the temperature-derived measurements. Such improvement has a direct feedback on both the α_S and Θ, leading to a drop of a least one order of magnitude for a ΔT of 3 °C and more than 44 times for the latter at 30 °C. As result, the figure of merit zT can now be determined with an uncertainty equal to 0.58%.
... Thermoelectric energy harvesting is a simple, robust, and cost-efficient solution to scavenge energy from temperature gradients generated by solar radiation and human activity, among others [1,2]. Energy harvesting with thermoelectric generators (TEGs) has been mostly explored for applications where large temperature gradients are available, like engines, industrial furnaces, or exhaust pipes, and several applications powered by TEGs have been presented in the literature. ...
Solar radiation and human activity generate ubiquitous temperature gradients that could be harvested by thermoelectric generators (TEGs). However, most of these temperature gradients are in the range of very few degrees and, while TEGs are able to harvest them, the resulting output voltages are extremely small (a few hundreds of mV), and DC–DC converters are necessary to boost them to usable levels. Impedance matching between TEGs and DC–DC converter plays a fundamental role in the energy harvesting efficiency. Therefore, it is essential to determine the output power of the system in different configurations, in order to decide on the optimum TEG connection. Here, we present an electronic circuit to measure the maximum power that can be harvested with low-voltage TEGs connected to a DC–DC converter. The developed circuit is an electronic controlled load that drains the maximum current from the output of the DC–DC converter while maintaining its output voltage at the maximum allowed value. Using a mechanical set-up able to apply precise low temperature gradients between the hot and cold side of the TEGs, experimental data using different configurations of TEGs are obtained. The measured results show that, for ultra-low voltages, the TEG ensemble’s output impedance plays an important role not only in the amount of the energy scavenged, but also in the onset temperature of the energy harvesting.
... Unfortunately, the amount of useful power generated is often very low and in the milli-watt (mW) to watt (W) range, and this has been a barrier to widespread commercial application. Parallel advances in energy storage using electric double layer capacitors, often referred to as supercapacitors, and low power boost and DC to DC converters has enabled practical thermoelectric energy harvesting systems to be realized and become commercially viable [10]. This section provides the main theoretical background into thermoelectric power generation and energy harvesting systems necessary to apply this technique to electronic water meter applications. ...
... The heat sink is used to create and maintain a temperature difference between the hot and cold sides of the module. If a resistive load RL is connected across the module's output terminals, electrical power will be generated at the load when a temperature difference exists between the hot and cold sides of the module due to the Seebeck effect [10]. A schematic diagram of a thermoelectric module, operating as a thermoelectric power generator, is shown in figure 1. Figure 1. ...
... A schematic diagram of a thermoelectric module, operating as a thermoelectric power generator, is shown in figure 1. Figure 1. A thermoelectric module configured to operate as a thermoelectric generator [10]. ...
Domestic electronic water meters are installed by water meter utility companies to accurately measure household water usage for billing purposes, progressing from simple electromechanical systems to state-of-the art volumetric electronic smart meters with RF radio transmission, remote reading, and automatic billing capability. The motivation for this work is to replace, or increase the lifetime of, the on-board lithium-ion battery installed in electronic water meters with a thermoelectric energy harvesting solution to create a business advantage. Practical field experiments at several different water meter installations in the UK, USA, and Australia have demonstrated a temperature difference can exist between the top-side and bottom-side of a water meter, and between several different areas of the meter and the surrounding air. This temperature difference can be harnessed to generate electrical power using thermoelectricity. A prototype thermoelectric water meter energy harvesting system has been designed, and experiments demonstrate the system will operate when a temperature difference is present across the thermoelectric module, giving an output voltage of 3.7 V to power the water meter electronics directly or to provide a charge current for the existing lithium-ion battery to increase its lifetime. The work concludes it is feasible, although still challenging, to develop a solution for a novel thermoelectric powered water meter. Further work is required to address the commercial challenges that exist, develop and optimise the prototype solution into a production ready prototype, and conduct further tests using a standard UK domestic water profile at a UK water meter test site.
