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A series of in situ , exposed osteoderms of Glyptotherium cf. G. cylindricum from a single section of carapace (TERA-51) from Térapa. Both internal and external faces of osteoderms are showed. Scale is 100 mm.
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Los yacimientos ricos en fósiles de Térapa (área centro-oriental de Sonora) contienen más de 60 taxon zoológicas, muchos con afinidades tropicales como Crocodylus (crocodrilo), Hydrochaeris (capibara), y muchas aves. Los depósitos contienen además la dermis ósea de oído (osteodermis) de dos xenartros extintos, un gliptodonte (Glyptotherium cylindri...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... is a 1.5m-long section of the carapace from a single individual Glyptotherium (Figure 3). Some of the osteoderms have the internal surface oriented up while others have the external surface oriented up indicating that sections of both the left and right side of the carapace are preserved or that some were fl ipped over during burial. ...
Context 2
... material. Osteoderms (dermal ossicles) assigned to Glyptotherium cylindricum include: Térapa— TERA-25, 27-30, 50: interior carapace osteoderms; TERA-24, 49: lateral osteoderms near border; TERA-26, 31: caudal border carapace osteoderm; TERA- 32-36, 45-48: conical osteoderms; TERA-37-44: anterior osteoderm of caudal ring: TERA-51: large section of carapace from single individual. La Botana— NAU QSP-17887: one mid-carapace osteoderm; NAU QSP-17886: one lateral border osteoderm; AMNH 59592 and 59693: 163 isolated and 6 articulated osteoderms; AMNH 59594: two mid-carapace osteoderms; AMNH 96369: one mid-carapace osteoderm. Llano Prieto— Mentioned in fi eld notes; no osteoderms were observed in the AMNH collections. Chinobampo— Four mid-carapace osteoderms: AMNH 59595. Only the ventral side of these osteoderms is preserved. The dorsal side is obscured with a thick coating of caliche-like carbonate. Remarks and identi fi cation. North American glyptodonts are distinct from the South American forms and placed in their own genus Glyptotherium , which is closely related to the South American genus Glyptodon (Gillette and Ray, 1981). The earliest glyptodont in Mexico, Glyptotherium sp., is recorded from early Blancan deposits in central Mexico (Carranza-Castañeda and Miller, 2004). There are three recognized species of Glyptotherium from Mexico: G. cylindricum [Rancholabrean LMA; one locality], G. fl oridanum [Rancholabrean LMA; two localities], and G. mexicanum [Rancholabrean LMA; one locality] (Gillette and Ray, 1981; McDonald, 2002). Additional species are described and are restricted to the United States and older deposits ( G. arizonae [Irvingtonian LMA] and G. texanum [Blancan LMA]). The distribution of the genus was more extensive during the Blancan and Irvingtonian with remains occur- ring in Arizona and New Mexico respectively (Morgan and Lucas, 2005; Morgan and White, 2005; White and Morgan, 2005), and even north into Oklahoma (Czaplewski, 2004). Records of late Pleistocene, RLB, Glyptotherium in the United States are concentrated along the Gulf States region (Gillette and Ray, 1981). Consequently from the Blancan to the Rancholabrean there was a reduction in the range of the genus to the east and south in the United States. Extensive fi eld studies have shown that no Rancholabrean records of Glyptotherium exist in the Southwest United States (Mead et al ., 2005; Morgan and Lucas, 2005). Until now its distribution in Mexico during the Rancholabrean was thought to be restricted to central and southern portions of the country (McDonald, 2002; Figure 1). The dermal armor of glyptodonts is their single most outstanding characteristic. Consequently the morphology of the osteoderms has long been recognized as taxonomically important. Each osteoderm that covers the body region (carapace) is polygonal (six- or four-sided) and is tightly sutured to its neighbors, inhibiting trunk mobility. For a discussion of the development of the osteoderms, see Holmes and Simpson (1931) and Hill (2006). The typical hexagonal osteoderm has a central figure and several peripheral figures symmetrically arranged around the center, producing a characteristic and diagnostic rosette pattern (terminology of Hill, 2006). Identi fi cation characters used here follow Gillette and Ray (1981). In G. texanum, the central figure is larger than the peripherals, and is convex and slightly raised above the level of the fl attened peripheral fi gures. In G. arizonae and G. cylindricum , the central fi gures are relatively smaller than the peripherals, not greater than 50 percent of the entire osteoderm diameter, and are generally fl at to weakly convex. In G. fl oridanum the central fi gure is approximately equal in size to those of the peripherals, and is typically raised and weakly concave. The central fi gure on the osteoderms of G. mexicanum is generally large, never smaller than half (50 percent) of the osteoderm diameter. Although seemingly distinct for all the species, we recognize that there is variation of the rosette size and pattern within and among species. Isolate osteoderms may be dif fi cult to accurately identify in all cases. Complicating this is the fact that G. cylindricum and G. mexicanum are less than adequately understood, being known only from the type localities (Carranza-Castañeda and Miller, 1987; McDonald, 2002). Better material may show that these two taxa are synonomous. Until more complete carapaces of Glyptotherium from Mexico are studied in detail and apomorphies established for the osteoderms, we identify our specimens from Sonora using the characters outlined above from Gillette and Ray (1981). In addition, we omit G. arizonae and G. texanum from consideration of the Rancholabrean glyptodonts based on their earlier age assignment. Clearly much remains to be understood about Mexican glyptodonts. TERA-24 measures 39.6 by 34.8 mm. The thickness varies from 11.2 to 12.6 mm which indicates that the osteoderm is from a lateral, near-border location (Figure 2a). Due to location on the carapace, the TERA-24 specimen does not have the typical rosette pattern. TERA-25 is a typical rosette osteoderm of the mid- carapace (Figure 2b). Overall the osteoderm measures 37.4 by 45.1 mm, and is 16.3 mm in thickness. The central fi gure of the rosette measures 16.6 mm (36 percent of the greatest diameter). The central fi gure is fl at and only slightly larger than the peripheral fi gures, consistent with the pattern found on G. arizonae and G. cylindricum (Gillette and Ray, 1981). The above character would imply that the Glyptotherium from Térapa is more similar to G . cylindricum than to G. mexicanum . We use this solitary character to identify the fossil glyptodonts to species, omitting the posibility of G. arizonae based on age assignment. Additional interior carapace osteoderms have the typical rosette pattern with the central fi gure relatively small: TERA-27 (52.4 by 41.4 mm; 17.5 mm thick; central fi gure is 15.2 mm wide (29 percent of the diameter) and slightly depressed; TERA-29 (40.1 by 39.1 mm; 16.4 mm thick; central fi gure is 16.7 mm wide (42 percent of the diameter); TERA-30 (42.1 by 33.4 mm; 17.5 mm thick; central fi gure is 18.9 mm wide (45 percent of the diameter); and TERA-50 (38.5 by 37.3 mm; 16.3 mm thick; central fi gure is 16.6 mm wide (43 percent of the diameter). TERA-26 is a large osteoderm (53.9 by 48.5 mm) that appears to be from the second row of osteoderms adjacent to the border osteoderms along the caudal edge of the carapace (Figure 2c). TERA-51 is a 1.5m-long section of the carapace from a single individual Glyptotherium (Figure 3). Some of the osteoderms have the internal surface oriented up while others have the external surface oriented up indicating that sections of both the left and right side of the carapace are preserved or that some were fl ipped over during burial. Four osteoderms were measured: 35.0 by 41.8 mm (central fi gure is 16.1 mm, or 38 percent of the diameter), 35.8 by 39.9 mm (central fi gure is 15.9 mm, or 44 percent of the diameter), 40.9 by 37.3 mm, and 35.5 by 29.6 mm. The relative size of the central fi gures from this carapace section indicates that this specimen can also be referred to G . cylindricum . The remains from La Botana include a small lateral border fragment (NAU QSP-17886) and a mid-carapacial osteoderm (NAU QSP-17887). The latter osteoderm is more complete and has a maximum diameter of 48.4 mm and a thickness of 20.1 mm. The central fi gure measures 19.8 mm. While the margin of the osteoderm is somewhat broken, enough remains that we are con fi dent that our meas- urements are good approximations. In any case, a slightly larger maximum diameter would only serve to decrease the ratio of the diameter of the central fi gure to the maximum diameter of the osteoderm. As preserved, the central fi gure is 40.9 percent of the osteoderm diameter, placing it well within the range recorded for Glyptotherium cylindricum and well below the minimum for G. mexicanus . The 12 best preserved osteoderms from La Botana (Tesopaco Locality 2) in the AMNH (59592, 59593 and 96369) gave an average maximum diameter of 51.6 mm (46.8 – 58.9), an average length of the central fi gure of 20.5 mm (18.1 – 21.9), with the central fi gure averaging 39.8 percent (33.6 – 45.2) of the osteoderm diameter. These osteoderms are also well within the range reported for G. cylindricum and well below the minimum for G. mexicanus . We have examined the osteoderms in the AMNH from Chinobampo and con fi rm their identity as Glyptotherium . However, the dorsal surface is encrusted with a caliche-like carbonate which obscures the sulci and makes measuring the central fi gure ...
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The fossilrich deposits of Térapa (eastcentral Sonora) contain more than 60 zoological taxa, many with tropical affinities such as Crocodylus (crocodylian), Hydrochaeris (capybara), and many birds. The deposits also contain the dermal ossicles (osteoderms) of two extinct xenarthrans, a glyptodont (Glyptotherium cylindricum) and a pampathere (gian...
Citations
... Yet, Holmesina septentrionalis ranged further north onto the High Plains of western Texas (Johnson, 1986), Oklahoma (Stovall & Hibbard, 1948), and Kansas (Hibbard et al., 1978). Glyptotherium was relatively widespread across the southern United States in the Late Pliocene, but that range was subsequently reduced and Late Pleistocene occurrences of Glyptoherium floridanum are confined to south of 33 20 0 N (Hunt County, northeast Texas) and east of 100 W (Jones County, northwest Texas; Gillette & Ray, 1981;Mead et al., 2007). Toxodonts are not reported from McFaddin Beach but are relevant to the provinciality issue given that a single specimen of Mixotoxodon from Big Cypress Creek near the Texas coast, northwest of Houston , is the only record of toxodonts north of southern Mexico. ...
The machairodontine felid Homotherium achieved a global geographic distribution throughout much of the Pleistocene. Accordingly, that large carnivore is important for understanding patterns of community composition. We report on a new record of Homotherium based on a fragmentary premaxilla–maxilla discovered on McFaddin Beach, Texas, along the Gulf of Mexico. Skeletal remains of extinct, Pleistocene vertebrates accumulate on McFaddin Beach. Those fossils appear to originate from submerged deposits on the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico, an area that was subaerially exposed in the Late Pleistocene during glacial intervals. Marine erosion and transport altered the externally visible morphology of the current specimen, obscuring and/or damaging taxonomically informative details of the preserved dentition. However, high‐resolution X‐ray computed tomography revealed diagnostic portions of the unerupted crown of an upper canine within its alveolus. The serrated edges of the canine combined with the position of the incisors demonstrate that the specimen from McFaddin Beach represents a species of Homotherium . That specimen is the latest in a larger sample of Homotherium in Texas that spans most of the Pliocene–Pleistocene. This is the first occurrence of Homotherium from the continental shelf of the Gulf Coast. That landscape may have formed a broad subtropical Gulf Coast corridor that facilitated the dispersal of Neotropical taxa along the coast between Texas and Florida. The associated fauna from McFaddin Beach contains Neotropical mammals common to southern Texas and Florida and indicates that Homotherium was a member of the fauna inhabiting the Gulf Coast corridor during the Late Pleistocene.
... This family is characterized by diagnostic osteoderms that allow the distinction between the two genera (Edmund, 1996;Scillato-Yané et al., 2005). Pampatherium mexicanum is the only recognized species of this genus in North America (Mead et al., 2007). Movable osteoderms in the genus Pampatherium are poorly ornamented, the marginal band may be absent, particularly in the Mexican population, or may consist of a narrow band of follicular pores on the posterior part and the lateral margins; the marginal band is not significantly depressed under the submarginal band and in the central part is broad, low, and without protrusions or a raised keel (Edmund, 1996), which are characteristics observed in the fossil material from Las Tazas. ...
... Los representantes de los órdenes Cingulata y Pilosa arribaron a la región desde Sudamérica debido al Gran Intercambio Biótico Americano (GIBA). El primero, que incluye a los armadillos y gliptodontes, se registra con tres familias y cinco géneros con una especie cada uno, siendo Glyptotherium cylindricum el que presenta los restos más abundantes (McDonald, 2002;Mead et al., 2007;Kowallis et al., 2017). Por otro lado, los perezosos (Pilosa) presentan una mayor diversidad, con cuatro familias y seis géneros con una especie cada uno, todos ellos como formas terrestres. ...
En el estado de Jalisco, localizado en el oeste de México, se encuentran yacimientos fósiles que abarcan desde el Cretácico inferior al Cuaternario. En este trabajo se presenta una lista sistemática del registro fósil de Jalisco, México, y se analiza la composición de su riqueza. Fue revisada la literatura global sobre el tema y consultadas las colecciones que poseen material fósil de la región. Se obtuvieron un total de 293 especies organizadas en tres reinos, seis phyla, 12 clases, 49 órdenes, 87 familias y 184 géneros. Un total de 67 especies (22,9%) son microfósiles y 226 (77,1%) son macrofósiles. Los microfósiles incluyen dos especies de foraminíferos (3%) y 65 de diatomeas (97%). Entre los macrofósiles, el grupo mayormente representado a nivel de clase es Mammalia con 110 especies (48,7%), seguido por Gastropoda con 37 (16,4%), Sauropsida con 35 (15,5%) y Teleostei con 30 (13,3%); las clases con menor representación son Isopoda, Scaphopoda, Amphibia y Magnoliopsida con un registro cada una. El periodo mejor representado es el Cuaternario, con 199 especies (67,9%), seguido por el Neógeno con 49 especies (16,7%) y, finalmente, el Cretácico con 45 (15,4%). Por localidad, la más rica es Chapala y Zacoalco para el Cuaternario, Tecolotlán para el Neógeno y Tamazula para el Cretácico. Las especies incluidas fueron registradas desde 1875 hasta el 2022.
Palabras clave. Diversidad. Cuaternario. Neógeno. Cretácico. Guadalajara. Chapala.
... This latitudinal range of G. cylindricum was not synchronous, but instead shows a progressive retraction of geographical range during the Late Pleistocene with changing habitats during the last glacial (Fig. 1B, C). Interestingly, the latest records of G. cylindricum in Mexico at $21 ka (Flynn et al. 2005, Mead et al. 2007, Bravo-Cuevas et al. 2009, Ram ırez-Cruz & Montellano-Ballesteros 2014, Gillette et al. 2016) pre-date those from Guatemala and Venezuela at $16-9 ka and correlate with occurrences of G. cylindricum from southeastern North America that were previously identified as G. floridanum in the Late Pleistocene of Florida (Gillette & Ray 1981). ...
... Ma: Zurita et al. 2018). Fossils have been reported from the Late Pleistocene of the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Guatemala, Venezuela and Brazil (Gillette & Ray 1981, Laurito et al. 1993, Mead et al. 2007, Bravo-Cuevas et al. 2009, Ram ırez-Cruz 2014, Ram ırez-Cruz & Montellano-Ballesteros 2014, Gillette et al. 2016, together with a possible occurrence in the Pleistocene of Honduras and El Salvador (Webb & Perrigo 1984, Lucas 2008. In North America, G. cylindricum is known from Mexico in Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Hidalgo, Jalisco, the State of Mexico, Nuevo Le on, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Sonora, San Luis ...
... A Rancholabrean age is supported by the presence of Bison in the fauna [14]. The inferred paleohabitats include a slow-moving stream, ponded water, marsh, and savanna, or submerged to emergent grassland [14,15]. To this list, ref. [20] added riparian forest as a concurrent habitat type. ...
... In addition to the sloth, two other xenarthrans are present in the Térapa fauna: a glyptodont, Glyptotherium cylindricum, and a pampathere, Pampatherium cf. mexicanum [15]. The presence of these two taxa also supports the idea of a mild and moderate climate. ...
... It is associated with the pampathere, Pampatherium cf. mexicanum [15]. ...
While the North American mylodont sloth, Parmylodon harlani, has been identified in multiple localities in Mexico, most of these records are from the southern part of the country. Consequently, there is a large geographic gap between its distribution in Mexico and the more northern records of the species in the United States. The recovery of the remains of multiple individuals of Paramylodon harlani, as part of a late Pleistocene fauna in San Clemente de Térapa, Sonora, Mexico, partially fills this geographic gap and provides a broader understanding of the differences in the species’ ecology over a wide latitudinal range. A comparison of the paleoecology of the Térapa site with other sites with P. harlani in the fauna to the south and north provides valuable information on how regional topography and different plant communities impact the sloth’s distribution and underlying causes for its extinction.
... Recent publications have described Mammuthus and Cuvieronius (Mead et al., 2019), Glyptotherium cylindricum and Pampatherium cf. P. mexicanum (Mead et al., 2007), two shrews and six bats (Czaplewski et al., 2014), and 39 species of birds (Steadman and Mead, 2010;Oswald and Steadman, 2011). With Bison present throughout the stratigraphic profile, Térapa represents one of the few Rancholabrean North American Land Mammal Age (LMA) sites studied in detail in Sonora (Bell et al., 2004;Mead et al., 2006). ...
A paleontological deposit near San Clemente de Térapa represents one of the very few Rancholabrean North American Land Mammal Age sites within Sonora, Mexico. During that time, grasslands were common, and the climate included cooler and drier summers and wetter winters than currently experienced in northern Mexico. Here, we demonstrate restructuring in the mammalian community associated with environmental change over the past 40,000 years at Térapa. The fossil community has a similar number of carnivores and herbivores whereas the modern community consists mostly of carnivores. There was also a 97% decrease in mean body size (from 289 kg to 9 kg) because of the loss of megafauna. We further provide an updated review of ungulates and carnivores, recognizing two distinct morphotypes of Equus , including E . scotti and a slighter species; as well as Platygonus compressus ; Camelops hesternus ; Canis dirus ; and Lynx rufus; and the first regional records of Palaeolama mirifica , Procyon lotor , and Smilodon cf. S . fatalis . The Térapa mammals presented here provide a more comprehensive understanding of the faunal community restructuring that occurred in northern Mexico from the late Pleistocene to present day, indicating further potential biodiversity loss with continued warming and drying of the region.
... Cuevas et al., 2009), mientras que G. cylindricum presenta figuras centrales con una superficie que varía de plana a ligeramente convexa y son más grandes que las periféricas; G. mexicanum se distingue por tener figuras centrales más grandes que las periféricas(Gillette y Ray, 1981;Mead et al., 2007; Ramírez-Cruz y Montellano-Ballesteros, 2014), características ausentes en el material estudiado, al no contar con material más diagnóstico como los molares o el cráneo; se designan al ejemplar BUAPALZ-1090 tentativamente como G. floridanum, siendo el tercer registro de gliptodontes y el segundo registro de esta especie de gliptodonte para San Mateo Huexoyucán, Tlaxcala.Los ejemplares revisados corresponden a una asociación de mamíferos herbívoros pleistocénicos incluyendo Artiodáctilos (Bison antiquus, Camelops hesternus), proboscídeos (Cuvieronius hyodon, Mammuthus sp.), équidos (Equus conversidens, Equus mexicanus) y gliptodontes (Glyptotherium), los cuales corresponden con una asociación de mamíferos herbívoros rancholabreanos y concuerdan con los registros previos (Bonilla-Toscano, 2011; Ramírez-Cruz y Montellanos-Ballesteros, 2014; Sánchez-Salinas et al., 2016). La combinación de los siete taxa encontrados en este estudio se presenta para los sitios de Chapala-Zacoalco en Jalisco, Tequixquiac en el Estado de México y Valsequillo, Puebla(Ceballos et al., 2010;Ferrusquía-Villafranca et al., 2010), siendo San Mateo Huexoyucán, la cuarta localidad en el país con este ensamble de megafauna (Figura 7). ...
The fossils from San Mateo Huexoyucan, Tlaxcala, Mexico are formally described in this work. The specimens collected since 2011 include cranial and postcranial ele ments of Pleistocene Megafauna. The iden tification of the elements allows to postulate that they correspond to six previously reported species for the study area (Bison antiquus, Camelops hesternus, Cuvieronius hyodon, Equus conversidens, E. mexicanus and Mammuthus sp.), high lighting the presence of fossil material that corresponds to a juvenile individual of pro boscideans (Mammuthus sp.) and glyptodonts (cf. Glyptotherium floridanum).
... About 20 fossil sub-localities comprise the T erapa local fauna in an area of approximately 1 by 2 km. To date the following taxa or analyses have been described: crocodilian (Mead et al., 2006), birds (Steadman and Mead, 2010;Oswald and Steadman, 2011), shrews and bats (Czaplewski et al., 2014), glyptodont and pampathere (Mead et al., 2007), ostracodes and isotopes (Nunez et al., 2010;Bright et al., 2016), dire wolf (Hodnett et al., 2009), and a preliminary description of horse and bison (Carranza-Castañeda and Rold an-Quintana, 2007). Ungulates (including detailed bison description), rodents, additional carnivores, mollusks, anurans, a caudate, and squamates are presently being described. ...
What is currently known about México paleontology and specifically the proboscideans has centered in the central and southern states, with much of the north largely unknown. Here we report on Cuvieronius (Gomphotheriidae) and Mammuthus (Elephantidae) recovered from Térapa, a Late Pleistocene site in east-central Sonora. The local fauna reflects a badlands environment along the Río Moctezuma, 183 km (114 mi) south of the Arizona border. The recovery of Bison places the locality within the Rancholabrean Land Mammal Age. Chronological analyses confirm that impounding basalt and fossiliferous sediments were deposited 43,000 to 40,000 years ago (MIS 3). Cuvieronius and Mammuthus are found throughout the stratigraphic profile. A review of Late Pleistocene collections indicates that Mammuthus, Cuvieronius, and one location of Mammut are known from Sonora. The Late Pleistocene along the Térapa river valley is reconstructed as cooler, with a more equable, less seasonal environment than today. The corridor was wetter, more tropical and included a riparian forest, ponding water, marsh, and savanna grassland. The area west of Térapa in western Sonora had a cooler summer climate, more winter rains and less summer rains. Woodlands and shrub communities occupied the upper bajadas and rocky hills, areas possibly where Mammut ranged more commonly. Valleys contained more grasslands than they do today. The environments and climates of valleys permitted Cynomys, Mammuthus, and Cuvieronius to exist over most of western Sonora where they are extinct today.
... Escala = 4 cm. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 2016 / 509periféricas(Gillette y Ray, 1981;Mead et al., 2007), características ausentes en el material estudiado. Debido al número de ejemplares y a su estado de conservación, el material de San Mateo Huexoyucán se asignó tentativamente a G. floridanum. ...
Se describen los fósiles de mamíferos pleistocénicos procedentes de la zona de San Mateo Huexoyucán, Tlaxca- la, México, alojados en la Colección Paleontológica de la Benemérita Uni- versidad Autónoma de Puebla. Se cuales seis son nuevos registros para el área de estudio (Bison antiquus, cf. Bison occidentalis, Camelops hesternus, Equus mexicanus, Eremotherium laurillardi cf. ). También se reportan formalmente tres especies que fueron mencionadas en traba- jos previos (Cuvieronius hyodon, Equus conversidens y Mammuthus sp.). La pre- sencia de Bison permite asignar una Edad Mamífero Rancholabreana (Pleistoceno tardío) a la asociación faunística. En concordancia con esto, los fósiles proceden de una secuencia de 51798 47650 años A.P.
... For T erapa, based on the faunal assemblage and especially Tapirus and Odocoileus, it has been proposed that between 43 and 40 ka BP (MIS3) a closed forest was developed in the area (Mead et al., 2007). However, based on d 13 C studies it was a mixed environment with forest and adjacent grassland vegetation, C4 or CAM plants (Nunez et al., 2010). ...
Stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C) in terrestrial geological materials (paleosol humus and carbonates) as well as fossil bones (collagen and tooth enamel) are established as highly specific records on paleoenvironmental characteristics. It was assumed that comparing the results of different types of materials on regional or local scales provides more accurate and reliable reconstructions and even opens new aspects of interpretation. This was tested by the comparison of the data obtained from the late Pleistocene paleosols and/or remains of Pleistocene megafauna in various locations in Northwestern Mexico: Sonora (paleosols formed in MIS3, MIS2 and MIS1); Central-Northern Mexico: San Luis Potosi (teeth, corresponding to MIS2 and MIS1); and Central-Southern Mexico: Puebla (paleosols corresponding to MIS3 and MIS2, and teeth associated with these paleosols), and State of Mexico (teeth, corresponding to MIS2). The results of isotopic studies are complemented with other paleoenvironmental proxies. The δ13C values of paleosols of Sonora is −19.8 to −16.95‰ in organic matter, and shows little difference between paleosols and Holocene soils; δ13C values of pedogenic carbonates are −6.4 to −4.52‰. In San Luis Potosí, the δ13C values of paleosol are −12.16‰ in organic matter. In Puebla, they vary from −24.6‰ in paleosols to −15.16‰ in the modern surface soil, pointing to contrasting vegetation change. The δ13C values in fossils range from −10.7 to 1.2‰ in SLP; of −2.73 and −2.93‰ in Puebla; and −6.5 to −1.3‰ in State of Mexico.
