Figure - available from: Journal of Plant Growth Regulation
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A schematic view of polyamines (PAs) biosynthesis and catabolism. R1, R2 and R3 in the right panel refer to three different routes of putrescine biosynthesis. Spermidine and spermine are also produced from putrescine and aminopropyl residues (in the form of deSAM) generated from ethylene biosynthesis. Catabolic pathways for PAs are depicted in the left panel. ADC arginine decarboxylase, AIH agmatine iminohydrolase, NCPAH N-carbamoylputrescine amidohydrolase, CDC citrulline decarboxylase, ODC ornithine decarboxylase, SAMS S-adenosylmethionine synthase, ACC 1-amino-1-carboxycyclopropane, SAMDC S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, DeSAM decarboxylated s-adenosylmethionine, SPDS spermidine synthase, SPMS spermine synthase, PAO polyamine oxidase, DAO diamine oxidase, GABA γ-aminobutyric acid
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Polyamines (PAs) namely putrescine, spermidine, spermine and cadaverine are low molecular weight polycations found in all living organisms. In plants, considerable progress has been made on PA metabolism. As evident from the multiple research articles and reviews, PAs are known to stimulate various aspects of growth and development such as seed ger...
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Citations
... Polyamines (PAs) are growth regulators associated with numerous metabolic processes in plants including fruit maturation, ripening, softening, and senescence (González-Hernández et al. 2022;Jangra et al. 2022). Putrescine (Put), 1,4-diaminobutane, a type of polyamine, can regulate various physical, physiological, and biochemical processes of fruit (Todorova et al. 2016;Anwar et al. 2019;Kaur and Das 2022). Exogenous application of Put increased the bunch weight, fruit weight, pulp/seed ratio, total soluble solids and total sugars content, however titratable acidity and tannins values were decreased in 'Amhat' dates (Abd El-Migeed et al. 2013). ...
... In the same line, exogenous application of Put was shown to promote fruit growth and development (Abd El-Migeed et al. 2013;Naser et al. 2016;Chen et al. 2019;Hagagg et al. 2020). This enhancement might be due to the fact that Put can play a role in many biological processes, including cell division and elongation, embryogenesis, root formation, floral initiation and development, fruit development and ripening, and pollen tube growth and senescence (Todorova et al. 2016;Jangra et al. 2022;Kaur and Das 2022). Moreover, it was suggested that PAs act as hormonal second-messengers of cell proliferation and differentiation in many processes or in combination with GA3 and/or SA, improved 'Zaghloul' productivity. ...
... Essential elements like calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and manganese are abundant in date fruit and improve its nutritional value fruit growth and quality (Kaur and Das 2022). In addition, SA plays an integrating role in regulating the source-to-sink relationship by inducing plant growth and development pathways and upregulating physiological responses related to carbon uptake and/or fixation (Brito et al. 2018a, b;Khan et al. 2022;. ...
Putrescine (Put), gibberellic acid (GA3), and salicylic acid (SA) are involved in improving fruit growth and development. This is the first study investigating the effect of 1 mM Put, 100 mg L⁻¹ GA3, and 100 mg L⁻¹ SA on Phoenix dactylifera, cv. Zaghloul fruits. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design during two successive seasons and five treatments [control (distilled water spray), Put, Put + GA3, Put + SA, and Put + GA3 + SA] were sprayed at the Hababouk (cell division) stage and Kimri [unripe green (cell elongation)] stage. Our results showed that all treatments significantly improved the yield and quality of ‘Zaghloul’ fruit by increasing the dry matter, crude fiber, ash, total soluble solids, (reducing, non-reducing, and total soluble) sugars, carbohydrate, protein, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, zinc, iron, and manganese content as well as the peroxidase and catalase activity. Compared with the control treatment, exogenous applications also enhanced the amino acid (glutamic acid, aspartic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, arginine, cysteine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, valine) acquisition and phytohormone (indole-3-acetic acid, cytokinins, GA3, SA) content, while decreasing the percentage of moisture, total acidity, total phenols, and tannins. The novel evidence indicates that among all treatments, application of diamine (Put), in combination with phytohormones (GA3 and SA), has the greatest effect on improving ‘Zaghloul’ fruit yield by up-regulating the nutrient acquisition, sugar accumulation, amino acid profile, antioxidant response, and phytohormone performance. These findings support the use of Put in conjunction with GA3 and SA to improve fruit yield and quality.
Plants undergo a wide range of morphological, cellular, anatomical, and physiological changes in response to salinity stress. However, plants produce some signaling molecules, usually known as phytohormones, to combat stress conditions. Salinity tolerance is a complex mechanism, whereas phytohormones have a central role in it. Phytohormone-mediated plant responses improve nutrient uptake, the source-sink relationship, and plant growth and development. Phytohormones triggers the specific gene expressions which are responsible for the modification of various plant mechanisms under salinity stress. This review summarized the most recent research findings about plant responses to salinity stress at physiological and molecular levels and discussed the probable function of several (abscisic acid, indole acetic acid, cytokinins, gibberellic acid, salicylic acid, brassinosteroids, ethylene, and triazoles) phytohormones and their interaction in modulating salinity stress. Further, the understanding of specific genes involved in phytohormonal regulation toward salinity tolerance is a key to developing breeding and transgenic approaches for meeting food demand under sustainable crop production.
Worldwide, biotic stress severely degrades agricultural output and increases the risk of starvation. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) are one of the important endoparasites that adversely affect the growth and development in plants, thus affecting their productivity. Contrarily, humans employ a number of unfriendly techniques, such as chemical applications, to manage biotic stressors. Use of Plant Growth Regulators is an environmentally safe alternative method against chemical pesticides that can be used to defend plants from biotic stressors. Melatonin and polyamines have been broadly found in multiple physiological processes and in diverse biotic and abiotic stresses faced by plants. In the contemporaneous study, we conducted an in vitro experiment which disclosed that pretreated seeds with melatonin and spermidine (a polyamine), decreased root galls in afflicted plants and uplifted the growth of Solanum lycopersicum seedlings. According to our findings, tomato plants' photosynthetic efficiency dropped and reactive oxygen species levels dramatically rose after nematode inoculation. On the other hand, melatonin and spermidine decreased oxidative stress by scavenging hydrogen peroxide and decreased malonaldehyde. The present work investigated improvement in growth characteristics, photosynthetic pigments, antioxidative enzymes and non-antioxidative enzymes in PGR treated tomato seedlings even during the nematode stress. Confocal studies evaluated nuclear damage within root apices and intensity of blue colour was directly proportional to nuclear damage. The findings of the present investigation support the use of plant growth regulators, melatonin and spermidine as seed priming agent to manage nematode stress in plants.
