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The Indian subcontinent has suffered some of the greatest earthquakes in the world. The earthquakes of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries triggered a number of early advances in science and engineering related to earthquakes that are discussed here. These include the development of early codes and earthquake-resistant housing after t...
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... Developed countries like the USA, Japan, Italy and New Zealand have proactive retrofitting strategies leading to improved seismic resistance for buildings, as evident in recent earthquakes [5]. In developing countries like India, many buildings are seismically vulnerable and at risk of strong earthquakes with the rapid increase in new construction projects [6]. ...
... The prototype passive, SPPD and ADD were placed at the ground storey of the benchmark building to control the seismic response of the building. The passive damping devices offered damper force as described by the Kelvin-Voigt model, and thus, the dynamic equilibrium equation stated by Equation (2) will be modified as, M ẍ(t) + C ẋ(t) + K x(t) + F d (t) = -M L ẍg(t) (6) 15 Substituting Equation (2) into Equation (6), the dynamic equilibrium equation becomes, ...
Passive damping devices are mostly preferred owing to their relatively lower cost, low maintenance, and stability over a wide range of frequencies during seismic events. Currently, these devices with temperature in-sensitive viscoelastic material are being explored. The paper aims to develop a prototype piston-cylinder based passive damper with silicone rubber particles and characterize it with varied amplitude and frequency of sinusoidal input. The device Silicone Rubber Particle Packed Damper, so developed, was then implemented in the benchmark building for seismic response control. Silicone rubber particles with lower hardness were produced through compressed molding technology to improve the damping efficiency of the device. The device was later converted to an Air Damping Device by removing silicone rubber particles for a natural comparison of efficacy. Hysteresis curves of devices, elliptical in shape, obtained through characterization were mathematically modelled using the Kelvin-Voigt model, and parameters were identified using multivariable linear regression to implement them with the benchmark building. Uncontrolled and controlled responses of benchmark building fitted with, both, damping devices were determined under strong motion (El Centro, Hachinohe) and pulse-type (Kobe, Northridge) seismic excitations. Seismic response parameters; peak displacement, peak interstorey drift, peak acceleration, and peak damper force was estimated. Each seismic response parameter yields substantial reduction for controlled benchmark building with Silicone Rubber Particle Packed Damper. The efficacy of damping devices was established by Performance Indices in terms of peak interstorey ratio, level acceleration, base shear, and control force. Though both passive damping devices were found effective in seismic response control of benchmark building, Silicone Rubber Particle Packed Damper outperforms Air Damping Device. The developed prototype damping devices are a low cost and easy to maintain.
... Most of the traditional timber-framed structures are constructed using experience from past earthquakes and common traditions prevalent in the locality [11,17]. The exceptional behaviour of timberframed structures during past seismic events [18][19][20][21][22] has created a need to study the behaviour of and inspect the present design practises for timber-framed structures. In the past couple of decades, there has been significant experimental testing on the components of timber-framed masonry structures, such as the walls, wall panels, St. Andrew's cross, and connections [23][24][25]. ...
The superior performance of timber-framed structures in prior earthquakes has led to their increasing popularity in seismically active regions since past few decades. These structures correspond to the local seismic cultures developed by local people using local materials to resist earthquakes. However, there is a lack of experimental research that aims to characterise the behaviour of timber-framed masonry structures when subjected to seismic hazards, despite their outstanding features and ease of construction. The present study describes a set of experiments conducted on a prototype single-story, single-room timber frame structure filled with dry stack masonry, using a shake table with half-scale dimensions. The present study examined three distinct models, one featuring a bare timber frame without a diaphragm, the other a bare timber frame with a diaphragm and the third one incorporating a timber frame infilled with dry stack masonry. The dynamic characterization of the models was carried out under white noise base excitation. Additionally, the seismic behaviour of the timber frame with infill was investigated by subjecting it to a ground motion of increasing intensity. The study evaluated the dynamic characteristics of the system including natural frequency, damping ratio, mode shapes, and stiffness degradation. The observed results indicate a reduction in frequency to 30% and a degradation in stiffness to 48% when subjected to shake table motions up to a peak ground acceleration of 0.45 g. Sensors and instrumentation were strategically placed to capture the dynamic response of the structure in terms of peak accelerations at the sill, lintel, and roof levels. Acceleration amplification factors of both in-plane and out-of-plane walls are presented based on the measurement of the acceleration response from the floor to the roof level. The amplification of acceleration response was found to be higher for out-of-plane walls, with a value of 300%, as compared to in-plane walls, which exhibited a lower amplification value of 100%. Experimental findings substantiate that these building systems provide efficient seismic resilience. Furthermore, for interpretation of the dynamic characteristics mostly the mode shapes, an analytical model of the timber-framed masonry is developed in ABAQUS software and the results from finite element analysis fared reasonably well with the experimentally evaluated values.
... Over the past few decades, India has made significant advancements in the domains of earthquake engineering and the development of seismic code provisions. Further, numerous current studies are devoted to precisely calculating the seismic hazard and risk of the nation (Rao et al. 2020;Jain 2016). Hence, the life cycle perspective under the uncertainty presented here, will aid the researcher and stakeholders in decision-making under uncertainty and channeling monetary resources. ...
... In a country like India, where material and construction practices vary in a wide range across the country, it is a challenging task to classify the Indian buildings and develop appropriate archetypical models. Limited literature exists that classifies the building stocks in a comprehensive manner within the Indian context (Rao et al. 2020;Jain 2016;Lang et al. 2018). For example, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India commissioned extensive countrywide surveys of the building types and classified Indian buildings into 54 types (National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) 2013). ...
... Over the past decade, seismic hazard assessment in India has advanced rapidly from a deterministic approach to regional PSHA implementation (Nath and Thingbaijam 2012;Iyengar et al. 2010;Jain 2016). However, the recent seismic design code of India IS:1893-2016 (Bureau of Indian Standards 2016) still utilizes the deterministic approach in which the entire country is divided into four seismic zones (zone II, III, IV and V) and a deterministic value zone factor is proposed that can be used in the design. ...
Seismic life cycle cost analysis (SLCCA) is a reliable approach to assess the economic implications of the structure over the lifetime of the structure in terms of present-day value for lifetime investment planning, especially when located in moderate to high seismic zones. The state-of-the-art methodology of SLCCA incorporates three essential components: (a) seismic hazard curves representing expected seismic intensity at the site, (b) seismic fragility curves describing the likelihood of a structure being damaged beyond an explicit damage level and (c) cost related to damage levels. The expected seismic intensity at the site can vary significantly due to various sources of uncertainty such as earthquake source and site characteristics, ground motion prediction equations. For engineering applications, the mean hazard curve is typically used. However, the possible values of hazard can be significantly higher than the mean estimates. As seismic hazard assessment is the furthermost component of the SLCCA framework, the seismic hazard uncertainty propagates through subsequent components, and seismic life cycle cost (SLCC) may vary substantially. Presently, limited literature exists that calculates the SLCC in the Indian context and quantifies and propagates different sources of uncertainty. This study aims to assess the influence of hazard curve uncertainty on SLCC using a case study example of reinforced concrete (RC) building located in cities with different seismic zones (Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Bhuj). For that purpose, a Monte Carlo simulation-based approach is used. Results reveal the criticality of incorporating uncertainty as opposed to a deterministic approach.KeywordsFragilityHazardIndian buildingReinforced concreteSeismic life cycleUncertainty
... Multi-storey buildings are the need of present era due to the increasing population and scarcity of residential land [1][2][3]. These buildings must be able to resist lateral loads such as wind and seismic loads, of which the seismic loads are considered the most devastating due to their unpredictability amongst all the natural disaster [4][5][6]. Therefore, designing for earthquake resistant building is crucial, and this process heavily depends on the choice of structural configuration, the choice of building material, and the technology used in construction [7]. The performance of a building with simple structural features and a regular plan is significantly higher than that of a building with complex features and an irregular plan [8] but due to some factors, such as property boundary lines, the topography of the area and comfort of the occupants, some irregularities are introduced in the building [9]. ...
This study aims to understand the behaviour of a base isolated L-shaped building under far field and near field earthquake ground motion. A ten-storey L-shaped building was considered for the study and modelled using SAP2000, which is finite-element-based software. At first, a non-isolated model was created, and the required data was generated in order to develop an isolated model. After that, a non-linear time history analysis was performed, and the results of storey displacement, torsional irregularity, and base shear have been discussed for the base isolated model and the non-isolated model. The fundamental time period of base isolated L-shaped building was found to be 2.56 s while the base model had fundamental time period of 0.88 s. It was found in this study that higher peak ground acceleration (PGA) and peak ground velocity (PGV) of the ground motion led to higher storey displacement, storey drift, and base shear but a lower torsional irregularity ratio under near field ground motion, while torsional irregularity ratio of base isolated building was found to be increased under far field ground motion.
... India's history is associated with significant earthquakes, with almost 60% spread over areas with earthquakes of more than 7 MW. The Himalayas, which extend into northern India, are even associated with 8 MW or more earthquakes, with approximately four such shocks every 50 years [60]. According to Lauer [51], an interesting example of the indigenous people and their traditional knowledge is several tribes from the Andaman Islands, namely the Sentinels, Ongas and Jarawos, who still survive in the area as hunters and gatherers, for several thousand years. ...
... Typical Taq construction (adopted from Ref.[60]). ...
... Traditional dhajji dewari (adopted from Ref.[60]). ...
In areas often decimated by natural disasters, indigenous peoples have developed specific knowledge through generations of stories based on their past experiences. This indigenous knowledge has enabled them to reduce the risk associated with natural phenomena, including tsunamis, disasters with highly destructive potential that occurrence is complicated to predict. At the beginning of the 21st century alone, tsunamis claimed hundreds of thousands of lives and caused enormous material damage, but many indigenous communities survived them with minimal human casualties. This study aims to identify, describe and analyze the indigenous knowledge that indigenous peoples use to reduce the risks resulting from the possible effects of tsunamis and earthquakes and reduce their negative impacts. This area is mapped in detail based on the available relevant literature and its analysis. Here, individual findings are linked to specific localities threatened by tsunamis or earthquakes, which are primarily situated in the Ring of Fire. The search results revealed various forms of indigenous knowledge ranging from intangible cultural values and stories to tangible stones or musical instruments. There is an intention to generalize the view of traditional knowledge, especially by analyzing the similarities and dependencies found between the identified knowledge. Some examples of failure to use indigenous knowledge, or ignorance of it on the part of municipalities, are also presented. Acquired results demonstrate that procedures and methods based on indigenous knowledge serve as effective tools in risk management when dealing with the danger of tsunamis or earthquakes and reducing their negative impacts.
... The study of the informal economy has assumed special significance. Jain andSajjad (2016a & explored Sariska Tiger Reserve (STR), which is a virtual ecological island influenced by both anthropogenic pressures and a significant cattle population from the villages located there. The government has initiated voluntary relocation of villages, but this action has not yielded desired results as most of the residents depend on the surrounding forest for their livelihood. ...
Progress in Population Geography, 2016-2021
... An ample database of the location, date, and magnitude of past earthquakes helps to establish the recurrence relations for the region under consideration. The complete instrumental data are generally available for a relatively short period of time, say for India, the reliable instrumental information on earthquake events are available after 1964 (Chandra 1977;Jain 2016 Iyengar and Ghosh 2004, etc.). In the present study, seismo-tectonics of the study region has been reviewed to build the historical and instrumental seismicity database from various sources. ...
... In the present study, three earthquake scenarios are assumed. Scenario 1 (S1) assumes that all the sources are subjected to a critical stress level which obeys the recent research carried out by Bilham and Gaur (2011) and Jain (2016) as they stated that the flexural stress of the Indian plate is at a critical level everywhere in India and the occurrence of great earthquake is pending in this region and can be expected to occur in the near future. Therefore, the estimated upper bound maximum potential magnitude ( 1 max M ) is assigned to all the sources (faults and lineaments). ...
... Thrust (HFT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Main Central Thrust (MCT)(Jain, 2016). These three series of thrusts have generated many devastating earthquakes including the great 1905 Kangra earthquake of shear wave magnitude (Ms)8 (SEISAT 2000), one of the most destructive events of the past century in this region. ...
PhD Thesis is a part of the Project titled "Development of Seismic Design Methodology for Combined Pile-Raft Foundations of NPP Structures Interactions with Site-Specific Response Analysis" sponsored by the Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences (BRNS), Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India.
Principal Investigator:- Prof. Deepankar Choudhury
... Table 1 presents a list of the most devastating earthquakes in India and the neighbouring countries in the past century, which have resulted in the loss of thousands of lives, considerable damage to infrastructure, and displacement of millions of people for an extended period. For example, 1) The 2015 Nepal earthquake, which affected both Nepal and neighbouring states in India, caused more than 8900 deaths, injured about 21950, and triggered the widespread destruction of structures [15]; 2) The 2001 Gujrat (Bhuj) earthquake killed about 20000 people, injured about 166800 people, and destroyed about 400000 homes [16,17]; and 3) In the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, 87350 fatalities were recorded, and about 75200 people were injured [18,19]. In most earthquake events, failure and collapse of the URM buildings are observed due to excess tension under inplane shear, lack of anchorage, and also due to out-ofplane flexural tension [20][21][22][23][24]. ...
... As a result, the axial load increase in piers due to overturning moment on the wall is estimated using Eqs. (16) and (17), respectively. ...
... 4) The developed assessment procedure, design methodology, detailing, and recommendations proposed for the application of splint and bandage retrofitting technique to URM buildings can be implemented using 16 Retrofit procedure for application of splint and bandage to existing masonry: (a) marking of splints and bandages on existing masonry walls; (b), (c) removal of plaster on the marked area for splints and bandages; (d) raking of masonry joints for good bond with ferrocement or cement-sand mortar; (e) pit in the floor near door opening for anchorage of wire mesh of splint below the floor level; (f) L-shaped pit in the floor at the junction of main and cross-walls to anchor the wire mesh of splint below the floor level; (g) application of bond coat over raked and cleaned masonry walls for good bond with ferrocement or cement-sand mortar; (h) application of first layer of plaster; (i) roughening of plastered surface for good bond with the second layer of plaster; (j) cutting the wire mesh into required size; (k) epoxy painting of wire mesh to safeguard against corrosion; (l) drilling holes across the wall to place dowel bars; (m) connecting the wire mesh and steel bars on both sides of wall using dowel bars and anchors, respectively; (n) application of second layer of plaster on the wire mesh properly attached to the wall; (o) ferrocement being sprayed on wire mesh using guniting technique; (p) use of concrete spacers between wire mesh and the wall; (q) neat finish to the plaster; (r) finished URM-splint and bandage. the guidelines of IS 13935 [80] for practical design and execution on-site. ...
The paper presents a seismic safety assessment of unreinforced masonry (URM) building using two approaches. The first approach uses the ‘Pier Analysis’ method, based on the concept of equivalent lateral stiffness, where in-plane and out-of-plane actions are considered independently. The second approach is developed with the program SAP2000, where the linear response is evaluated using continuum ‘finite element modelling’ (FEM). Both methods are compared to evaluate the safety of wall piers and the differences in the outcomes under combined gravitational and lateral seismic forces. The analysis results showed that few wall elements are unsafe in in-plane and out-of-plane tension. It is also observed that the pier analysis method is conservative compared to FEM, but can be used as a simplified and quick tool in design offices for safety assessment, with reasonable accuracy. To safeguard the URM wall piers under lateral loads, a retrofitting technique is adopted by providing vertical and horizontal belts called splints and bandages, respectively, using welded wire mesh (WWM) reinforcement. The study using the ‘Pier Analysis’ shows that the lateral load capacity of unsafe URM piers can be enhanced up to 3.67 times and made safe using the applied retrofitting technique. Further, the retrofitting design methodology and recommendations for application procedures to on-site URM buildings are discussed in detail.
... Some examples are the causalities in the 1993 Latur (M6.2), the 1997 Jabalpur earthquake (M6), and other events. Earthquake safety assessment and retro tting the built environment are necessary to make the buildings safe (Jain 2016). Detailed quantitative assessments of the buildings in low-to-moderate seismic zones are rarely done but cannot be done on a large scale. ...
The current seismic zonation of India is based on limited earthquake data, and hence significant revisions are anticipated in the near future. Once revised, existing region-specific risk, calculated as a combination of Hazard (H), Vulnerability (V), and Exposure (E), need to be upgraded, rendering the previous risk metrics derived outdated. The current work proposes a methodology for developing fragility functions derived from field-based detailed qualitative assessment, i.e., Earthquake Disaster Risk Index (EDRI). The methodology introduces a term hazard factor, a function of the seismic zone, soil type, and spectral amplification embedded into fragility functions. The hazard factor is incremented, and the probability of exceedance of EDRI in each damage state, i.e., slight, moderate, severe, and collapse, is evaluated. To reinforce the results, fragility functions are developed by employing the capacity spectrum method, a detailed quantitative assessment. Finally, hybrid vulnerability functions for low to moderate seismic zones are proposed.
... The Indian subcontinent was prone to historical earthquakes of late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries [2]. The earthquakes often occur in mountainous regions especially the Himalayas [2] and the seismic activity is always observed in the south of Main Central Thrust (MCT). ...
... The Indian subcontinent was prone to historical earthquakes of late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries [2]. The earthquakes often occur in mountainous regions especially the Himalayas [2] and the seismic activity is always observed in the south of Main Central Thrust (MCT). The safety of the built environment is addressed [2] with an urgency to resist the seismic hazard. ...
... The earthquakes often occur in mountainous regions especially the Himalayas [2] and the seismic activity is always observed in the south of Main Central Thrust (MCT). The safety of the built environment is addressed [2] with an urgency to resist the seismic hazard. India needs safe construction, code enforcement, training all stake holders, research and development by using the opportunities provided by already occurred earthquakes. ...
This exploratory research narrates the axial compressive behavior of concrete filled circular GFRP (Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer) tubes under concentric compression using FEA software ANSYS15.0, followed by optimizing the confinement models using Number Cruncher Statistical System (NCSS11). In this study about 40 specimens having (H/D ratio confined to 2) 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height were considered with tube thicknesses being 3, 4, 5 and 6 mm. The unconfined concrete strength was varied between 30 MPa and 120 MPa. Newer simplified linear confinement models were arrived for the short unrein-forced CFFT columns which encourages optimality followed by acceptable correlation with the available codal equations of ACI 440.2R08.
