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Objective:
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Citations
... The infection causes pox lesions on the skin, especially on the arms, hands, face, and nose. It also causes fever, swollen lymph nodes, and general weakness (Essbauer et al., 2010;Ghosh et al., 1977;Kolhapure et al., 1997;Gujarati et al., 2019).The infection can be very distressing and debilitating for the affected people. There have been several reports of buffalopox outbreaks in animals and humans in Pakistan and India. ...
... The milkers also got infected and had lesions on their hands, forearms, and forehead (Essbauer et al., 2010;. Similar outbreaks were reported later in other regions (Damle et al., 2011;Marinaik et al.,2018) and a recent case report described a human infection in an Indian milkman and owner (Gujarati et al., 2019). These cases show that manual milking with bare hands exposes people to the risk of infection. ...
... Ретроспективный анализ последних 20 лет показывает, что активность очагов оспы обезьян в XXI в. возросла в странах Африки [8,9]. Также активизировались очаги оспы коров в Европе [2,6,7], оспы буйволов [4,[10][11][12]15] и оспы верблюдов в ЮгоЗападной и Центральной Азии [13,14]. В 2011 г. в Индии вирус оспы верблюдов преодолел межвидо вой барьер, вызвав клиническую оспоподобную форму заболевания у человека [16][17][18][19] ...
The paper highlights the current knowledge on infection biology, epidemiology and evolution of monkeypox virus (MPXV), cowpox virus (CPXV), buffalopox virus (CPXV), camelpox virus (CMLPV), as well as addresses some factors that modulate dynamics of orthopoxvirus transmission, manifestation of orthopoxvirus infections and their preservation in nature. Despite the elimination of the historically infamous smallpox, orthopoxviruses remain a serious veterinary and health problem. Their role is currently increasing while the number of persons not immune to smallpox grows. Along with this, there is a genetic transformation of pathogens. In this regard, the risks of human infection with orthopoxviruses of zoonotic nature are increasing. The problem of monkeypox, cowpox, buffalopox and camelpox and the respective agents included in the genus of zoonotic orthopox viruses presents the greatest interest. Along with the increased number of human monkeypox cases in 2020–2022, a retrospective analysis of the last 20 years shows that the activity of monkeypox outbreaks in the XXI century intensified in Central African countries. Cowpox outbreaks in Europe and camelpox outbreaks in Southwestern and Central Asia have also become more active. In 2011, in India, the camelpox virus overcame the interspecies barrier and caused a clinical pox-like disease in humans. Scientists are alarmed by these facts as the camelpox virus genomeis 99% homologous to the genome of the small poxvirus. This requires strengthening the epizootological and epidemiological monitoring of orthopoxvirus zoonotic pathogens.
... Buffalopox (BPX) is a re-emerging viral disease caused by the buffalopox virus (BPXV) and has been declared an important zoonotic disease by the FAO/ /WHO (Eltom et al. 2020). BPXV is a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus, belongs to the Poxviridae family (Gujarati et al. 2019). In 1934, BPX was first reported from India, followed by continuous sporadic outbreaks in Asian buffaloes in Russia, Egypt, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Italy and Indonesia (Essbauer et al. 2010). ...
Buffalopox (BPX) is a highly contagious disease that causes high morbidity and production losses in buffaloes. During this study, seroprevalence, effect of various associated risk factors, and pathological studies of BPX were recorded in the Punjab province. A total of 97 blood samples and 63 scabs were collected from clinically pox suspected buffaloes. Serum was harvested to perform single radial hemolysis to assess the seroprevalence, and scabs were subjected to PCR for BPX virus confirmation. Results revealed that, animal demographics and environmental associated factors showed significant effect (p⟨0.05,1⟨R2⟩0) on BPX occurrence. The overall BPX seroprevalence was recorded 4.18% in the Punjab province. The BPX was recorded 5.48% in Nili Ravi breed during winter (7.42%), aged 5-7 years (7.46%) under loose housing (5.51%) in the Faisalabad region (8.03%). Further, BPX was 5.37% in pregnant, 6.86% pregnant milking buffaloes during the 3rd lactation period (7.28%) in dairy herds (5.20%). The BPX was 5.22% in non-vaccinated buffaloes where multiple animals were reared together (4.99%) in the herds having 21-30 total number of animals. A total of 49 scab samples were found positive for the BPX virus via PCR with C18L gene amplification. Grossly, inflammatory lesions with pits in the center and wart-like nodules were seen on teats and udder of buffaloes. Increased leukocytes, especially neutrophils and lymphocytes, were seen in the blood of the infected animals. These results provide a broader window to understand the effect of associated risk factors, strengthen the diagnostic aid, and to contain the current spread of BPX in Pakistan to safeguard large ruminant-based livelihood.
... There are only few published reports of cases available. Based on our search for key word "buffalo pox" in PubMed, there are four case presentations [1][2][3][4] and few articles on outbreak of buffalopox [5][6] . From 2013-2014 we witnessed an increase in the number of cases of buffalo pox virus in a rural community among milkers. ...
... All cases were having typical lesions and history of contact with infected animals, but the author himself as a patient clues the professional hazard. Despite the non-availability of serological tests in labs, histopathological findings and existing references from veterinary journals could support the diagnosis [1] . ...
... The emergence of BPXV occurred by gradual adaptation of the vaccine strain in buffaloes [26] until it converted to pathogenic, leading to outbreaks in this new host. Consequently, buffalopox outbreaks occurred frequently in many parts of India, affecting both buffaloes [10,17,27] and humans [10,[28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]. Reports on zoonotic outbreaks of buffalopox have been made from Pakistan as well [14,36]. ...
... Humans in close contact with affected animals can get infected by the virus. In humans, infection with BPXV was manifested as pox lesions in the flexor aspect of distal forearms, in the hand, dorsae of hands, wrist fingers, and thumbs, right preauricular area, right angle of mandible, right ala of nose, and forehead with or without swelling of the regional lymph nodes, general malaise, and fever [8,10,17,29,35,50]. ...
... Milkers suffered pox-like local lesions on their hands, forearms, and forehead, presented with pyrexia, axillary lymphadenopathy, and general malaise [8,10]. Further similar outbreaks had also been described also in animals and humans [31,51] and a recent case report on human infection with BPXV was made on an Indian milkman and owner [29]. Manual milking with bare hands exposed these individuals to the infection. ...
Buffalopox virus (BPXV) is the cause of buffalopox, which was recognized by the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Zoonosis as an important zoonotic disease. Buffalopox was first described in India, later in other countries, and has become an emerging contagious viral zoonotic disease infecting milkers with high morbidity among affected domestic buffalo and cattle. BPXV is a member of the genus Orthopoxvirus and a close variant of the vaccinia virus (VACV). Recent genome data show that BPXV shares a most recent common ancestor of VACV Lister strain, which had been used for inoculating buffalo calves to produce a Smallpox vaccine. Over time, VACV evolved into BPXV by establishing itself in buffaloes to be increasingly pathogenic to this host and to make infections in cattle and humans. Together with the current pandemic of SARS-COV2/COVID 19, BPXV infections illustrate how vulnerable the human population is to the emergence and re-emergence of viral pathogens from unsuspected sources. In view that majority of the world population are not vaccinated against smallpox and are most vulnerable in the event of its re-emergence, reviewing and understanding the biology of vaccinia-like viruses are necessary for developing a new generation of safer smallpox vaccines in the smallpox-free world.
... Buffalopox is an emerging zoonosis (Gujarati et al., 2019). The prophylactic and therapeutic agents that can be used to control buffalopox are lacking. ...
We describe herein that Apigenin, which is a dietary flavonoid, exerts a strong in vitro and in ovo antiviral efficacy against buffalopox virus (BPXV). Apigenin treatment was shown to inhibit synthesis of viral DNA, mRNA and proteins, without affecting other steps of viral life cycle such as attachment, entry and budding. Although the major mode of antiviral action of Apigenin was shown to be mediated via targeting certain cellular factors, a modest inhibitory effect of Apigenin was also observed directly on viral polymerase. We also evaluated the selection of drug-resistant virus variants under long-term selection pressure of Apigenin. Wherein Apigenin-resistant mutants were not observed up to ∼P20 (passage 20), a significant resistance was observed to the antiviral action of Apigenin at ∼P30. However, a high degree resistance could not be observed even up to P60. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing in vitro and in ovo antiviral efficacy of Apigenin against poxvirus infection. The study also provides mechanistic insights on the antiviral activity of Apigenin and selection of potential Apigenin-resistant mutants upon long-term culture.
... Buffalopox is an emerging zoonosis (Gujarati et al., 2019). The prophylactic and therapeutic agents that can be used to control buffalopox are lacking. ...
We describe herein that Apigenin, which is a dietary flavonoid, exerts a strong in vitro and in ovo antiviral efficacy against buffalopox virus (BPXV). Apigenin treatment was shown to inhibit synthesis of viral DNA, mRNA and proteins, without affecting other steps of viral life cycle such as attachment, entry and budding. Although the major mode of antiviral action of Apigenin was shown to be mediated via targeting certain cellular factors, a modest inhibitory effect of Apigenin was also observed directly on viral polymerase. We also evaluated the selection of drug-resistant virus variants under long-term selection pressure of Apigenin. Wherein Apigenin-resistant mutants were not observed up to ~ P20 (passage 20), a significant resistance was observed to the antiviral action of Apigenin at ~ P30. However, a high degree resistance could not be observed even up to P60. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing in vitro and in ovo antiviral efficacy of Apigenin against poxvirus infection. The study also provides mechanistic insights on the antiviral activity of Apigenin and selection of potential Apigenin-resistant mutants upon long-term culture.
... Buffalopox is caused by an orthopoxvirus that belongs to the family Poxviridae. The natural host for buffalopox virus (BPXV) is domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), but it can also infect cattle and humans and hence is considered as a potential zoonotic threat (Gujarati et al., 2018;Lewis-Jones, 2004;Singh et al., 2006Singh et al., , 2007. Buffalopox outbreaks have been reported in India, Egypt, Indonesia and Italy (Gujarati et al., 2018;Marinaik et al., 2018;Singh et al., 2007). ...
... The natural host for buffalopox virus (BPXV) is domestic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), but it can also infect cattle and humans and hence is considered as a potential zoonotic threat (Gujarati et al., 2018;Lewis-Jones, 2004;Singh et al., 2006Singh et al., , 2007. Buffalopox outbreaks have been reported in India, Egypt, Indonesia and Italy (Gujarati et al., 2018;Marinaik et al., 2018;Singh et al., 2007). Buffalopox virus (BPXV) infection in humans have been frequently reported in India (Bera et al., 2012;Dumbell and Richardson, 1993;Gujarati et al., 2018; animals are lacking. ...
... Buffalopox outbreaks have been reported in India, Egypt, Indonesia and Italy (Gujarati et al., 2018;Marinaik et al., 2018;Singh et al., 2007). Buffalopox virus (BPXV) infection in humans have been frequently reported in India (Bera et al., 2012;Dumbell and Richardson, 1993;Gujarati et al., 2018; animals are lacking. ...
A small molecule chemical inhibitor CGP57380 that blocks activation of MAPK interacting kinase 1 (MNK1) was found to significantly suppress buffalopox virus (BPXV) replication. BPXV infection was shown to induce MNK1 activation. Depletion of MNK1 by small interfering RNA (siRNA), blocking activation of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK, an upstream activator of MNK1) and disruption of eIF4E/eIF4G interaction (downstream substrate of MNK1 which plays a central role in cap-dependent translation initiation), resulted in reduced BPXV replication, suggesting that ERK/MNK1/eIF4E signaling is a prerequisite for BPXV replication. With the help of time-of-addition and virus step-specific assays, CGP57380 treatment was shown to decrease synthesis of viral genome (DNA). Disruption of ERK/MNK1/eIF4E signaling resulted in reduced synthesis of viral proteins, suggesting that BPXV utilizes cap-dependent mechanism of translation initiation. Therefore, we concluded that decreased synthesis of viral genome in presence of MNK1 inhibitor is the result of reduced synthesis of viral proteins. Furthermore, BPXV was sequentially passaged (P = 40) in presence of CGP57380 or vehicle control (DMSO). As compared to P0 and P40-control viruses, P40-CGP57380 virus replicated at significantly higher (∼10-fold) titers in presence of CGP57380, although a complete resistance could not be achieved. In a BPXV egg infection model, CGP57380 was found to prevent development of pock lesions on chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) as well as associated mortality of the embryonated chicken eggs. We for the first time demonstrated in vitro and in ovo antiviral efficacy of CGP57380 against BPXV and identified that ERK/MNK1 signaling is a prerequisite for synthesis of viral proteins. Our study also describes a rare report about generation of drug-resistant viral variants against a host-targeting antiviral agent.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to report a case of peripheral ulcerative keratitis in a patient diagnosed with corneal polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and a positive mpox culture.
Methods
This is a case report.
Results
An immunocompetent 54-year-old man was diagnosed with conjunctivitis in his left eye 15 days after being diagnosed with mucocutaneous monkeypox. He received treatment with dexamethasone 0.1% and tobramycin 0.3% eye drops for 2 weeks. Two weeks after discontinuing this treatment, he developed peripheral ulcerative keratitis and a paracentral epithelial defect. Mpox keratitis was diagnosed by corneal culture and PCR. Corneal inflammation persisted for more than 6 months, manifested as corneal epithelial defect, limbitis, endotheliitis, neurotrophic changes, and trabeculitis. This persistence was observed alongside positive corneal PCR results, despite undergoing 2 courses of trifluorothymidine, 2 courses of oral tecovirimat, and intravenous cidofovir. An amniotic membrane transplantation was then performed.
Conclusions
Persistent corneal pain and replication are possible with the mpox virus, even in immunocompetent patients. Having received treatment with topical corticosteroids before antiviral treatment for the pox virus may have contributed to the severity and persistence of the clinical condition. Cycle threshold PCR values can be used to support the diagnosis and monitor treatment effectiveness.
Zusammenfassung
Die Familie Poxviridae umfasst derzeit 22 Gattungen, die Wirbeltiere infizieren können. Humanpathogene Pockenviren gehören den Gattungen Ortho‐ , Para‐ , Mollusci‐ und Yatapoxvirus an. Bis zur Eradikation der Variola vera im Jahr 1979 waren die Pocken, im Volksmund auch Blattern genannt, eine schwerwiegende Gesundheitsbedrohung für die Bevölkerung. Noch heute sind Dermatologen mit zahlreichen Pockenvirusinfektionen konfrontiert, wie den Bauernhofpocken, die als Zoonosen nach Tierkontakten in ländlichen Gebieten oder nach Massenversammlungen auftreten können. In den Tropen können Erkrankungen durch Tanapox‐ oder Vaccinia‐Viren zu den Differenzialdiagnosen gehören. Dellwarzen sind weltweit verbreitet und werden in bestimmten Fällen als sexuell übertragbare Pockenvirusinfektion angesehen. In jüngster Zeit hatten sich Mpox (Affenpocken) zu einer gesundheitlichen Notlage von internationaler Tragweite entwickelt, die eine rasche Identifizierung und angemessene Behandlung durch Dermatologen und Infektiologen erfordert. Fortschritte und neue Erkenntnisse über Epidemiologie, Diagnose, klinische Manifestationen und Komplikationen sowie Behandlung und Prävention von Pockenvirusinfektionen erfordern ein hohes Maß an Fachwissen und interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit in den Bereichen Virologie, Infektiologie und Dermatologie. Dieser CME‐Artikel bietet einen aktualisierten systematischen Überblick, um praktizierende Dermatologen bei der Identifizierung, Differenzialdiagnose und Behandlung klinisch relevanter Pockenvirusinfektionen zu unterstützen.
