Figure 18
![A nomograph to determine the maximum horizontal extents of a structure, depending on the distortion of the underlying CRS, ∆, and the required level of precision of the end structure [redrawn with permission from 8]. For example, the maximum horizontal extent for a construction site with ∆ = 20 ppm and a required construction precision of 1 cm is 500 m, as indicated with black arrows.](profile/Stefan_Jaud/publication/343849821/figure/fig6/AS:930140070612993@1598774082584/A-nomograph-to-determine-the-maximum-horizontal-extents-of-a-structure-depending-on-the.png)
A nomograph to determine the maximum horizontal extents of a structure, depending on the distortion of the underlying CRS, ∆, and the required level of precision of the end structure [redrawn with permission from 8]. For example, the maximum horizontal extent for a construction site with ∆ = 20 ppm and a required construction precision of 1 cm is 500 m, as indicated with black arrows.
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An important element of metadata for any building information modelling (BIM) model is its location and orientation on the Earth. In most cases, engineering design is based on Cartesian coordinate systems. However, as facilities are placed in a geospatial context, discrepancies result from the transformation from the Earth's curved surface to the o...
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... Metric differences can even reach meters per linear kilometre if high altitudes are dealt with, or when the projection factor "K" moves away from the unity, or if both sources components coincide. For scale factor variations, the problem can be visualized as shown in Fig. 2: Fig. 2: UTM scale factor according to its position in a regular 6° longitude zone (Source: Jaud et al., 2020). ...
Topographic distances from global navigation systems (GNSS) equipment are being progressively involved in legal land parcel registration applications (Bramanto et al., 2019; Dabove, 2019; Pullar and Donaldson, 2022; Roberts, 2005; Tamrakar, 2013), a practice not entirely reliable from the surveying point of view of legal land registration. GNSS observations expressed as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates, are cartographic projection data and are not exactly what horizontal ground topographic distances indicate, which are valid for land tenure, deeds, rights purposes. A method for converting GNSS positions to horizontal topographic distances in cadastral environments preserving metric accuracy standards fixed for parcel registration according to Chilean authorities, is presented here. Complex equations to determine scale factor K from the UTM projection have been reduced to a set of constant coefficients, allowing replicating electronic distance measurement (EDM) performance in horizontal distances used in other experiences as Australia, by just providing coordinates and observed accuracies. All assumptions are aimed to simplify the property registration procedures in singular geographic environments like Chile, where urban settlements can be found at heights 2,000 m or more, being of utmost relevance to bear in mind differences between projected and ground coordinates. Applied experiences performed near Santiago de Chile at heights of 600 m over the MSL, yielded 3 mm difference in 500 m distance compared to measurements carried out by means of GNSS equipment in static mode.
... The problem of georeferencing (i.e. the location and orientation of the building within a binding geodetic reference system) of BIM models is dealt with, e.g., in [5] and [6], where the fundamental difficulties of 3D computer modelling are discussed. Such difficulties are mainly the following: ...
... Georeferencing raises questions as posed in [5] and [6]. These questions must be addressed particularly in the case of linear structures or large objects with spatial composition (e.g. ...
... Another tool at the core of infrastructure's digitalization is GIS (the geographical information system). A basic requirement of a project is geographical coordination, and BIM is no different [144]. Research on GIS integration within BIM has produced many results. ...
Representation and modeling using the building information modeling (BIM) methodology of civil works have become the subject of increasing attention in recent years, thanks to the potential offered by Open Infrastructure BIM (I-BIM). However, the complexity of infrastructure works, i.e., the variety of construction and technological systems, makes Open I-BIM very complex and challenging. The lack of systemic knowledge on the subject is another challenging factor. The aim of the following research work is to provide a synoptic overview of the existing scientific research, accompanied by the most recent studies in the field of computer modeling, its applications, and the main opportunities that Open I-BIM offers to the infrastructure sector. After a thorough review of 198 scientific articles published between 2013 and 2023, this study systematically presents a holistic review and critical reflection on the current status of the use of Open BIM in the infrastructure sector, with a focus on the development of the tools and methods used. The outcome of this work constitutes a systematic review of the literature with a bibliometric analysis on Open I-BIM, which is able to provide a knowledge base for identifying research trends, common problems, and the potential of developed methods.
... Graphical data are geometrically distorted with respect to the used cartographic representation and their accuracy corresponds to the used methods of their acquisition. The current BIM software allows to display objects in Cartesian coordinate system with a possible other possibility of coordinate expression based on transformation between different coordinate systems, which allows to display data obtained by geodetic surveying in field [62]. 2. Conversion of non-graphical information into BIM. ...
... The Bentley ProjectWise common data environment does not allow the setting of a coordinate system, it is only possible to take the coordinate system from an imported BIM model produced in desktop software. However, georeferencing brings with it the questions posed in [8,62]. In particular, this concerns linear structures and possibly large objects with spatial composition, where the scale change of the dimension in the terrain and in the plane of the map projection is already apparent. ...
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a modern approach to managing the process of preparation, realization and operation of building objects including their documentation throughout their life cycle, based on database agenda platform. The aim of our research is to analyze and innovate existing engineering procedures with the aim: 1. to remodel the existing CAD documentation into BIM for the purpose of public procurement, 2. to provide guaranteed data to the IS of the Digital Map of Public Administration and 3. to provide data for the design of new railway structures or their reconstruction. The aim of the case study was to evaluate the effectiveness of remodelling the existing as-built documentation of a railway construction into a common BIM data environment (CDE), in which further subsequent construction agenda should be managed for the remaining period of its life cycle. Using the documentation for construction realization of the railway station Šumice, this 3D documentation was remodeled into the BIM data environment CDE and alternatively also into the 2D GIS environment. The BIM data standard developed by the State Fund for Transport Infrastructure was analyzed during the documentation reworking. An important parameter of the documentation rework was the use of a geodetic reference system fully compatible with the cadastral system in the Czech Republic. It turned out that the general data standard is only partially applicable for railway structures containing many special objects and many objects requiring individual classification. The remodelling of existing graphical data proved faster and more efficient in a GIS environment (layer oriented) compared to the need for 3D remodelling in a BIM CDE (object oriented). Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness of remodelling underground technical infrastructure objects, while the visible surface situation is often more effectively captured by current progressive bulk data acquisition technologies. In a CDE environment, existing as-built documentation data can be efficiently stored and administered and progressively, for the procurement and execution of construction, purposefully remodeled only to the extent required in BIM or converted into an exchangeable Digital Technical Map (DTM) format for public administration.
... As cidades inteligentes utilizam a tecnologia da informação e comunicação nas mais diversas áreas de abrangência social e humana, facilitando a comunicação entre o cidadão e o governo, solucionando problemas de transporte e transito por meio de uma gestão adequada, incentivando um ambiente limpo e sustentável, fomentando a economia e melhorando a qualidade de vida do cidadão [5]. ...
... Na maioria dos casos, o projeto de engenharia é baseado em sistemas de coordenadas cartesianas. No entanto, como as instalações são colocadas em um contexto geoespacial, as discrepâncias resultam da transformação da superfície curva da Terra para o sistema de coordenadas ortogonais e engenheiros e desenvolvedores devem levar isso em consideração [5]. O domínio de arquitetura, engenharia e construção (AEC) está passando por uma transição do planejamento bidimensional (2D) para a modelagem tridimensional (3D) baseada em objetos. ...
... O domínio de arquitetura, engenharia e construção (AEC) está passando por uma transição do planejamento bidimensional (2D) para a modelagem tridimensional (3D) baseada em objetos. Edifícios e projetos de infraestrutura não são mais descritos com desenhos e documentos; são representados por um modelo digital composto de representações de geometria paramétrica em conjunto com uma gama de informações semânticas [5]. ...
... In most cases, engineering design is based on Cartesian coordinate systems. However, as facilities are placed in a geospatial context, discrepancies result from the transformation from the Earth's curved surface to the orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system [8]. ...
Building Information Modeling is an essential element for the digitization of the construction industry and forms the basis for the exchange of model-based data. In order to exploit the full potential of digitization, it is necessary for all stakeholders to operate digitally and avoid media discontinuities and format changes. A particular part in this process is given to the building authority, which has to examine and approve every application for a building permit. Our long-term goal is to automate the approval process in Austria; to reach this goal, we investigate which tasks have the highest potential for automation. We address this research question by interviewing the main stakeholders, by evaluating the tasks for the ability to automate them, and by clustering them in order to identify common subroutines and algorithms. As a result, we identify eight algorithmic tasks that can be automated and that are a part of every approval process, and we implemented these algorithms to prove the automation concept. This proof of concept is the basis for future automation steps in the processes of building authorities, whose implementation requires not only changes in the technical but also in the social, societal and political environments.
... In order to determine accurate extra path delays and subsequent multipath information, the satellite-user-reflector geometry must be given in a common metric coordinate system. However, in practice, this requirement can be violated since different coordinate systems are in use and the 3D building models are often given in a map projection such as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), which leads to distortions of distances [24,25]. ...
... The horizontal coordinates of a 3D building model are provided in the coordinates of a map projection of the ellipsoidal coordinates. This is due to the frequent or even mandatory use of map projections in planning, surveying or cadastre [25], and the subsequent use of projected 2D coordinates, such as Northing and Easting, in UTM. For this purpose, a reference ellipsoid has to be selected. ...
... The height component is generally a physical height and, thus, refers to a different reference surface [46]. Consequently, for each application, it must be considered whether the height components are physical or ellipsoidal heights and whether respective conversions using suitable geoid undulations are required; see, also, the discussion in [25]. ...
3D Mapping-Aided (3DMA) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a widely used method to mitigate multipath errors. Various research has been presented which utilizes 3D building model data in conjunction with ray-tracing algorithms to compute and predict satellites’ visibility conditions and compute delays caused by signal reflection. To simulate, model and potentially correct multipath errors in highly dynamic applications, such as, e.g., autonomous driving, the satellite–receiver–reflector geometry has to be known precisely in a common reference frame. Three-dimensional building models are often provided by regional public or private services and the coordinate information is usually given in a coordinate system of a map projection. Inconsistencies in the coordinate frames used to express the satellite and user coordinates, as well as the reflector surfaces, lead to falsely determined multipath errors and, thus, reduce the performance of 3DMA GNSS. This paper aims to provide the needed transformation steps to consider when integrating 3D building model data, user position, and GNSS orbit information. The impact of frame inconsistencies on the computed extra path delay is quantified based on a simulation study in a local 3D building model; they can easily amount to several meters. Differences between the extra path-delay computations in a metric system and a map projection are evaluated and corrections are proposed to both variants depending on the accuracy needs and the intended use.
... Within the BIM model, the CRS is represented in the so-called georeferencing meta data of the BIM model. This meta data is commonly encoded using one of the unique CRS identifiers from the European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG) database (International Association of Oil & Gas Producers, 2021;Jaud et al., 2020). ...
... The geometric context of any BIM model is usually seen as a local, three dimensional Euclidean space described with a Cartesian CS for the representations of objects on site (Jaud et al., 2020). It is expected that the objects' geometries in the model as well as finalized objects in reality share the same dimensions and positions (up to a certain delta), i.e., the scale between the real world and the model is 1. ...
... It shall be mentioned on this place, that the usage of IFCRIGID-OPERATION is limited to small models placed in relative proximity to the PoO. Assuming the equality of horizontal planes in the model with equipotential surfaces in nature is fallacy (Jaud et al., 2020). The reason is the steady drift of the gravity direction from the Up direction defined by the topocentric CRS. ...
The problem of georeferencing building information modelling (BIM) models is complex and in need of a comprehensive solution. We focus on the open BIM data format Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) and its georeferencing implementation. The requirements voiced by the domain experts during recent years have been collected and analysed. While IFC already covers some of the concepts, we propose an extension to the IFC schema to handle the inadequacy. Our proposal composes of two new entities: one supports geographic coordinate reference systems (CRSs) and the other enables a rigid transformation of BIM geometries. We showcase the possibilities with three examples, one for each of the required scenarios. The improvements assure much-needed semantically clear definitions of the georeferencing concept within the IFC data model. As such, the interpretation of IFC data content is unambiguous for stakeholders and software implementers.
... One of them is the recording of BIM data in global space, so that the data is not distorted. This problem was described in detail by S. Jaud et al. in [65]. Admittedly, this problem can be neglected for smaller projects (less extensive), but for large infrastructure projects, for which the application potential seems to be the greatest, this aspect cannot be neglected. ...
The integration of BIM (Building Information Modeling) and GIS (Geograph-ic Information System) technologies allows for added value in many fields; starting from the construction industry to administrative operations. However, the issue of integration is currently quite challenging. This is due to the lack of consistency (inter alia, a lack of standards) in the integration of both tech-nologies. It is the result of the different primary use of BIM and GIS. The use of BIM and GIS integration has great potential, especially in the construction industry. Therefore, it was decided to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of integration as well as the opportunities and threats in the future by performing a SWOT analysis. The analysis was performed cross-sectionally based mainly on the existing literature. Finally, six strengths, five weaknesses, five opportu-nities, and four threats were identified and described.
... 3conversion) Re-project to the coordinate and height system prescribed by the data requirements. Techniques can vary based on the kind of data being georeferenced Uggla, Horemuz, 2018;Jaud et al., 2020). ...
Big opportunities are given by the reuse and integration of data, which, nowadays, are more and more available, thanks to advances in acquisition and modelling technologies and the open data paradigm. Seamlessly integrating data from heterogenous data sources has been an interest of the geospatial community for long time. However, the higher semantic and geometrical complexity pose new challenges which have never been tackled in a comprehensive methodology. Building on the previous theories and studies, this paper proposes an overarching methodology for multisource spatial data integration. Starting from the definition of the use case-based requirements for the integrated data, it proposes a framework to analyse the involved datasets with respect to integrability and suggests actions to harmonise them towards the destination model. The overall workflow is explained, including the data merging phase and validation. The methodology is tested and exemplified on a case study. Considering the specific data sets’ features and parameters, this approach will allow the development of consistent, well documented and inclusive data integration workflows, for the sake of use cases processes automation and the production of Interoperable and Reusable data.
