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A geological map of Hong Kong International Airport. The black point on Chek Lap Kok Island is the reference point (partially referred to Plant and Oakervee 1998)
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Man-made land or islands that are reclaimed from the sea are suitable for building airports, harbors, and industry parks for
material transportation because of their broad air and land spaces. However, the reclaimed foundation settlement process is
of public concern, including the continuous impact of ocean processes on its stability. The majority...
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... by traditional leveling methods from March 2006 to April 2007. These ground control points were mainly distributed along the center line of the Southern Runway and around the Passenger Terminal Building. The reference point for ground deformation and unwrapping is located at the northeast of HKIA, where granite is distributed, as marked in Fig. 3. The ground truth data accuracy is typically better than 0.1 mm ( ). We calculated the annual ground settlement rate of each ground control point and used these results to validate the ASAR PSI-detected annual ground settlement ...
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Citations
... The second cluster research focuses on the monitoring of artificial islands, including continuous attention to the long-term settlement of artificial islands (Jiang and Lin 2010), monitoring the differential deformation after completion (Q. Zhao et al. 2011); deformation characteristics of the subsurface (G. Li et al. 2017). ...
Artificial islands are extensively utilized in urban development, ports, and tourism projects worldwide, but they also present numerous ecological and environmental challenges. This study provides a comprehensive review of the principal applications of modern artificial islands as well as their development trends. All artificial islands dating back to the eighteenth century have been compiled, encompassing their locations, construction, and purposes. The main content of this review is in three different directions: (1) artificial islands are categorized into six groups: application-based groups and arranged chronologically, providing insights into the growth patterns of each category; (2) three common island-building types: cofferdam island, reef island and floating island, and the related techniques are summarized and (3) the challenges faced by the construction of artificial islands are presented along with the suggestions and expectations. This review is intended to provide some inspiration for future research on artificial islands.
... This particular case has been directly related to differential settlements produced by coastal processess and retreat (Cuervas-Mons et al., 2021d). According to Zhao et al. (2011) and Zhao et al. (2015) this type of zones gained to the sea present high coastal incidence and relevant damages in the civil and port infrastructures. These authors estimated maximum velocities of −10 and −50 mm year −1 , in coastal airport of Hong Kong and the coastal urban area of Shangai city, respectively. ...
In this doctoral thesis, several A-DInSAR (Advanced Differential SAR Interferometry) techniques have been applied in three areas of Central Asturias (N Spain) and in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (SW Portugal), to the main aim of detecting, modeling and monitoring of ground motion from January 2018 to February 2020. Specifically, the study areas in Asturias correspond to the Peñas Cape surrounding (including the Podes Peninsula), the Tazones Lighthouse landslide and a mountainous area located in the Central Coal Basin.
The research has involved the following methodological steps: 1) A-DInSAR processing from PSIG and P-SBAS software using three different sets of SAR images: i) 113 SAR images from the Sentinel-1A/B satellites in descending orbit from January 2018 to February 2020; ii) 109 SAR images of Sentinel-1A satellite from January 2018 to April 2020, 48 of them in ascending orbit and 61 SAR images in descending orbit; 2) Obtaining of mean deformation velocity maps in the Line-of-Sight (LOS) direction (mm year−1) and deformation time series (mm); 3) Application of A-DInSAR post-processing methodologies of Active Deformation Areas (ADA tools) to estimate the deformation Vertical - Horizontal components; 4) Integration of all the-information, with geospatial data and topographic measurements taken by total station and validation of the deformations by field campaigns in a Geographic Information System and 5) Interpretation of the results obtained from a geological point of view.
The Peñas Cape environment has shown maximum LOS velocities from −17.1 to 37.4 and −23.0 to 38.3 mm year−1, linked to ground settlements and slope instabilities. In the Tazones Lighthouse landslide, topographic measurements have shown maximum monthly displacements of some points from 1 m to more than 14 m. However, the characteristics of the movement and the nature of the terrain have not allowed to obtain good results through A-DInSAR techniques.
In the sector of the Central Coal Basin, the measured deformations presented maximum LOS velocities of −18.4 and 9.5 mm year−1. These velocities are compatible with subsidence and phreatic level recuperation in an underground coal mining environment. However, these hypotheses could not be corroborated due to the confidentiality of geological-mining data. Deformations related to surficial slope instabilities were also detected.
In the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, 4 ADAs in ascending orbit and 3 ADAs in descending orbit have been related to industrial and urban subsidence, with maximum LOS velocities of −25.5 mm year−1. The maximum measured Vertical velocity was −32.4 mm year−1. The geological and hydrological data allowed to relate this subsidence to continuos compation of alluvial and anthropic deposits.
This research is an important contribution to the knowledge of mass movements at mining and coastal areas in the case of Asturias and at urban environment in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area. Furthermore, the reliability of the P-SBAS processing for ground motion detection and monitoring at regional and local scales has been demonstrated, as well as the usefulness of using A-DInSAR data together with topographic measurements taken in situ.
... Representatively, Zhao et al. (2011) used PS-InSAR to monitor the settlement of the reclaimed foundations of HKIA by modifying with ground truth data; this study confirmed the continuous influence of ocean current motion on the stability of foundations. Cavalie, Sladen, and Kelner (2015) used NSBAS-InSAR to measure ground deformation in the Var delta and the NCA airport, combining the ascending and descending data; the deformation was decomposed into east, west, and vertical components found near vertical deformation and extended over the entire delta. ...
Shanghai Pudong International Airport (PDIA), with its east side built along the coast with weak geological conditions, is prone to uneven foundation settlement due to the consolidation and compression of soil and erosion of coastal tides, affecting the safe operation of the airport. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct dynamic subsidence monitoring within the airport, especially in the runway area. 29 scenes of ascending track Sentinel-1A radar images from August 2016 to June 2018 are selected to perform surface deformation inversion based on PS-InSAR and improved SBAS-InSAR for PDIA and its around coastal area. Through cross-validation, the reliability of the time-series InSAR technique for dynamic monitoring of surface deformation of coastal zone infrastructures is confirmed. The results show severely uneven settlement. By combining the monitoring results with the local geological and hydrological dataset, the driving factors of differential deformation of the infrastructures are analyzed, including stratigraphic geological conditions, ground loadings, foundation treatment methods, water erosion, and groundwater level changes. Finally, the time-series deformation characteristics and the causes of PDIA's runway are emphasized based on the PS deformation results. This case provides a reference for the safety management of critical infrastructure in coastal areas using advanced InSAR technique.
... Land reclamation, as an important way to use coastal areas to expand land resources, has been conducted in many regions such as the Netherlands [1,2], the Hong Kong International Airport [3][4][5], Macau [6], Tianjin [7,8], and Shanghai Lingang New City [9][10][11], which is located in the southeast corner of Shanghai, China. Due to the compaction and consolidation of the soil layer and groundwater extraction, these areas suffer from ground subsidence, which raises potential risks to urban buildings, bridges, metro lines, and other infrastructures, even threatening people's lives. ...
Shanghai Lingang New City, located in the southeast corner of Shanghai, was constructed by land reclamation from 2002 to 2005, in an area where the geological structure is prone to subsidence over time. Firstly, we explore the spatio-temporal pattern of ground subsidence and its mechanism using the Persistent Scatterers Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSInSAR) technique by processing 50 scenes of Sentinel-1A images acquired from May 2016 to May 2018. In order to assess the accuracy of PSInSAR derived deformation, we collect the first-class leveling data at two benchmarks located in the study area; the comparison between the two settlement indicates that the maximum difference is 1.93 mm and 2.9 mm, respectively, which validates the PSInSAR’s high accuracy. We then obtain the skeleton release coefficients by the joint analysis of PSInSAR measurements and groundwater level data. Finally, we find that this coastal area has undergone both elastic and inelastic deformation from 2016 to 2018. The outcome shows that the combination of different techniques is conductive to understand the deformation mechanism of the aquifer system in these coastal areas, which is expected to be a valuable reference for ground subsidence monitoring and groundwater extraction management.
... Sudden ground collapse accidents occurred near metro lines, which were under construction at the time, due to over-pumping of underground water, compaction of soft soil, concentrated underground construction, and Karst geomorphology. Noticeable ground subsidence has also been observed in the other mega-cities of the delta, such as Macao, Shenzhen, and Hong Kong [240,430,431]. ...
Remote sensing technologies are extensively applied to prevent, monitor, and forecast hazardous risk conditions in the present-day global climate change era. This paper presents an overview of the current stage of remote sensing approaches employed to study coastal and delta river regions. The advantages and limitations of Earth Observation technology in characterizing the effects of climate variations on coastal environments are also presented. The role of the constellations of satellite sensors for Earth Observation, collecting helpful information on the Earth’s system and its temporal changes, is emphasized. For some key technologies, the principal characteristics of the processing chains adopted to obtain from the collected raw data added-value products are summarized. Emphasis is put on studying various disaster risks that affect coastal and megacity areas, where heterogeneous and interlinked hazard conditions can severely affect the population.
... In recent years, InSAR technology has been widely used in land subsidence monitoring at airports. Such as Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok Airport [13,14], Shanghai Pudong International Airport [15,16], Beijing Capital International Airport [17,18], Shenzhen Baoan International Airport [19,20], Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Malaysia [5], and Japanese airports [21][22][23]. The land formed by the land reclamation airport is characterized by high compressibility, low strength, and a large porosity ratio, which easily leads to ground subsidence. ...
Dalian Jinzhou Bay International Airport (DJBIA) is an offshore artificial island airport, where the reclaimed land is prone to uneven land subsidence due to filling consolidation and construction. Monitoring and predicting the subsidence are essential to assist the subsequent subsidence control and ensure the operational safety of DJBIA. However, the accurate monitoring and prediction of reclaimed subsidence for such a wide area under construction are hard and challenging. This paper utilized the Small Baseline Subset Synthetic Aperture Radar (SBAS-InSAR) technology based on Sentinel-1 images from 2017 to 2021 to obtain the subsidence over the land reclamation area of the DJBIA, in which the results from ascending and descending orbit data were compared to verify the reliability of the results. The SBAS-InSAR results reveal that uneven subsidence is continuously occurring, especially on the runway, terminal, and building area of the airport, with the maximum subsidence rate exceeding 100 mm/year. It was found that there is a strong correlation between the subsidence rate and backfilling time. This study provides important information on the reclaimed subsidence for DJBIA and demonstrates a novel method for reclaimed subsidence monitoring and prediction by integrating the advanced InSAR technology and Terzaghi Consolidation Theory modeling. Moreover, based on the Terzaghi consolidation theory and the corresponding geological parameters of the airport, predicted subsidence curves in this area are derived. The comparison between predicted curves and the actual subsidence revealed by InSAR in 2017–2021 is highly consistent, with a similar trend and falling in a range of ±25 mm/year, which verifies that the subsidence in this area conforms to Terzaghi Consolidation Theory. Therefore, it can be predicted that in the future, the subsidence rate of the new reclamation area in this region will reach about 80 mm/year ± 25 mm/year, and the subsidence rate will gradually slow down with the accumulation of reclamation time. The subsidence rate will slow down to about 30 mm/year ± 25 mm/year after 10 years.
... By contrast, in the area where the depth of the fill layer is less than 15 m, there are fewer settlement points and lower deformation rates. As the compressive deformation of the fill soil at different depths and the pressure on the undisturbed soil increases with the depth of the fill layer [43], the consolidation and compression of the fill layer is one of the reasons for the surface deformation of Ankang Airport. ...
Ankang Airport is constructed on an expansive soil-fill platform in Shaanxi Province, Central China. Since its completion in 2020, it has suffered surface deformation caused by the consolidation and settlement of the fill layer and instability of the expansive soil slope. Exploring the special deformation law of expansive soil regions by remote sensing and analyzing the deformation characteristics of airports in mountainous areas have always been key issues in related disaster research. Based on the intensity and phase observation data of 37 Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar images, this study obtained the spatio-temporal distribution of the deformation of Ankang Airport from May 2020 to October 2021. First, phase optimization was performed on the original interferograms. Second, the persistent scatterer synthetic aperture radar interferometry (PS-InSAR) method was applied to extract the surface deformation information of Ankang Airport, and the accuracy was evaluated. Finally, the singular spectrum analysis method was introduced to jointly analyze the deformation information obtained by the InSAR technology in combination with geological and climatic data. The results show that the excavation area of Ankang Airport was basically stable, the filling area had obvious surface and uneven deformation, and the expansive soil fill slope exhibits deformation characteristics strongly related to slope, rainfall, and fill depth. The deformation was mainly caused by consolidation and settlement, supplemented by the expansion and shrinkage deformation of the expansive soil.
... However, the postconstruction settlement of reclaimed reef islands may be underestimated because the deformation properties of coral sand have not been well investigated, especially under repeated disturbance. The engineering practices of airports, such as Osaka's Kansai airport in Japan (Mesri and Funk, 2015), Nice airport in France (Cavalié, Sladen, and Kelner, 2015;Dan, Sultan, and Savoye, 2007), Meiji Island airport (Lan et al., 2017), and Hong Kong airport (Zhao et al., 2011), indicate that construction and facilities on reclaimed islands suffer serious settlement problems during the first few years after they are completed. ...
Yang, J.; Wang, J.; Dong, L., and Fan, P., 2022. Axial deformation behavior of precompressed coral sand under repeated impacts. Journal of Coastal Research, 38(3), 592602. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. To investigate the subsidence behavior of backfill foundation under the disturbance of repeated landing of planes, a series of one-dimensional tests under repeated impacts were conducted on precompressed crushed coral sand with a variety of grading and relative densities. For each sample, the impacts (amplitude 600 kPa, frequency 5 Hz) were loaded three times in cluster form (lasting 6 s, one hour apart), while the static stress (200 kPa) was maintained continuously for 4 h. The axial deformations of the samples were recorded, and a comparative study was conducted by referencing the results of silica sand samples under the same conditions and coral sand samples under static loadings. The test results indicate that compared with silica sand, coral sand has a much larger total deformation, which is mainly influenced by the relative density, gradation, and order of impacts. By analyzing the results, it can be concluded that the deformation of coral sand has a greater plastic component and decreases faster than that of silica sand under repeated disturbances, and the total deformation and proportion of irreversible deformation decrease with increasing relative density. The influence of initial grading on the particle breakage index is more significant than the relative density. Improving the grading of coral sand can reduce the total deformation and minimize the proportion of unrecoverable deformation.
... Surface deformation caused by compaction of susceptible aquifer is connected with the decline of groundwater level during the exploitation of groundwater resources [1]. Land subsidence, as a slowly changing and irreversible geological disaster, is becoming increasingly common all over the world [2][3][4], including Mexico, Italy, Iran, Japan, Vietnam and China [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Long-term over-extraction of groundwater will lead to the large aquifer. ...
The long-term over-exploitation of groundwater has not only caused the compaction of aquifer thickness and surface deformation but has also further aggravated the loss of groundwater storage (GWS) in Beijing plain. The South-to-North Water Diversion Project (SNWDP) furnishes a new source of water for Beijing. By reviewing related studies, it was found that there are few studies on the realization of GWS estimation based on InSAR technology considering the lag effect. Therefore, in this study, firstly, the long-time series deformation characteristics of Beijing plain were obtained from 46 RadarSat-2 images using small baseline subset interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SBAS-InSAR) technology. Secondly, the seasonal components of surface deformation and hydraulic head change were extracted by means of multichannel singular spectrum analysis (MSSA), verifying the separation accuracy by means of Monto Carlo-SSA (MC-SSA). Finally, for the hydrodynamic delay (aquifer water supply/drainage) of the complex aquifer system, we introduced the time lag cross-correlation (TLCC) approach to correct the hysteresis response of seasonal deformation relative to the variation of the aquifer system head, so as to realize the estimation of aquifer storage properties and GWS loss, even unrecoverable GWS (UGWS). The results showed that the average annual variation of total GWS (TGWS) in Beijing plain was −6.702 × 107 m3, of which the depletion volume of UGWS was −6.168 × 107 m3, accounting for 92.03% of the TGWS. On a temporal scale, the depletion of UGWS lagged behind the total head change, with about one year of lag time. On a spatial scale, in contrast to the north of Beijing plain, the depletion of UGWS in the south only recovered briefly after 2015 and then continued to decline. This further indicated that the process of the decline of middle-deep confined head and long-term GWS loss caused by over-exploitation of groundwater was irreversible. These findings are of great significance to optimize the allocation of groundwater resources, reduce the harm of land subsidence and protect groundwater resources.
... The results showed that uneven subsidence was observed in the newly reclaimed area of the airport [18]. Zhao et al. used the PSI technique and Envisat satellite data to obtain the ground deformation of Hong Kong International Airport from 19 April 2006 to 9 January 2008 [19]. Jiang et al. used an improved PSI technique to invert the mean deformation rate and SPIA ground deformation; they performed time-series deformation analysis using the high-resolution TerraSAR-X satellite imagery acquired from September 2011 to October 2012 [6]. ...
Being built on the reclamation area, Shanghai Pudong International Airport (SPIA) has been undergoing uneven subsidence since the beginning of its operation in 1999. In order to explore the evolution characteristics of ground deformation in the SPIA reclamation area and further provide assurance for the airport's safe operation, 141 Sentinel-1A images from October 2016 to Sep-tember 2021 were selected to acquire time-series ground deformation observations by the StaMPS PSI processing procedure. We subsequently built a ground deformation prediction model using the Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) neural network for the short-term prediction of the SPIA deformation severity area. On this basis, the spatial-temporal evolution trends of SPIA ground deformation in the reclamation area were revealed concerning the influence and mode of action of geological conditions and environmental factors. Finally, we proposed targeted recommendations and strategies for the comprehensive ground deformation prevention and control needs of SPIA. The results indicated that the SPIA exhibits overall subsidence in the eastern part, with the maximum deformation rate reaching −57.29 mm/a. Meanwhile, the central and western part has a local uplift with the maximum deformation rate reaching 32.76 mm/a. The proposed LSTM ground deformation prediction model demonstrated excellent robustness in the region of uneven deformation, and the prediction results were in high agreement with the StaMPS PSI monitoring results. The time-series observations and prediction results are expected to provide references for the expansion project of SPIA and help the research of ground deformation and prevention in related fields.
