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A -Study area; B -Territory of eastern Kazakhstan with geographical distribution of precious, semi-precious and decorative stone deposits discussed in the present study. 1 -Topaz (Gromovskoye, Kalba Formation, Ulansk District); 2 -Ruby: 2a (Primarkokolye, Uspenka District), 2b (River Kurchum, Kurchum District), 2c (rivers Kaldjir and Bala-Kaldjir, Kurchum District), 2d (North Belukhinsk, Gorno Altay); -Coloured tourmaline and rubellite (Beacon and Asubulak, Kalba Formation, Ulansk District), 4 -Emerald (Nikolaevka, Kalba Formation); 5 -Beryl (Del'begetey, Kalba Formation); 6 -Diamond (Gromovka and Maloye Karasy, Del'begetey, Kalba Formation, Ulansk District); 7 -Garnet (Shemonaikha District, Rudno Altay); 8 -Kuntzite: 8a (Glubokoye District, Rudno Altay), 8b (Kalba-Narym zone); 9 -Rock crystal quartz: 9a (Savushinsk and Tigerek Formation, Rudno Altay), 9b (Akyailau, Dungali and Biesimas, Kalba and Zharma-Saur formations), 9c (Arshaty, Katon-Karagay District, southern Altay), 9d (Akzhayliau, Zharma-Saur Formation); 10 -Quartz: 10a (Targin and Samsonovka, Rudno Altay), 10b (Karaozek, Rudno Altay), 10c (Piezokvartsevoye, Pri-Irtyshiye), 10d (Prokhodnoy Belok, Rudno Altay); 11 -Turquoise (Zyryanovsk, Rudno Altay); 12 -Chrysoprase: 12a (Semipalatinskoye Pri-Irtyshiye), 12b (Kyzylchar, Ulansk District), 12c (Belogorskiy-Chernikhiv, Kalba Formation, Ulansk District), 12d (Glubokoye District, Rudno Altay); 13 -Agate/ chalcedony: 13a (Del'begetey, Ulansk District), 13b (Aliyan, Rudno Altay), 13c (Manrak, Saure and Saikan, Zharma-Saur Formation, Tarbagatay Mountains), 13d (Maloye Karasy, Kalba Formation); 14 -Rhodonite (Chekmar, Rudno Altay); 15 -Labradorite (Beloulbinsk, Ridder District, Rudno Altay); 16 -Jasper: 16a (Ridder-Sokol'noye, Ridder District, Rudno Altay), 16b (Kalba Formation); 17 Amethyst -Solomonovskoye deposit (Chingiz-Tarbagatay Formation); 18 -Fluorite: 18a (Kalba Formation), 18b (Karadzhal deposit, Almaty Region); 19 -Granite: 19a (Rudno Altay), 19b (Kalba Formation); 20 -Marble/marbled limestone (Novo-Taubinskoye, Kalba Formation); 21 -nephrite: 21a (Koksu River), 21b (upper Bukhtarma River)
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An overview is presented of gemstones from eastern Kazakhstan in terms of their geographical distribution, geological provenance and genesis, gemmological characteristics, historical use and current applications. Locally occurring precious, semi-precious and decorative stones were extracted and traded along the northern part of the Silk Road that t...
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... Empire during the 17 th and 18 th centuries (Christian, 2018). At that time, present-day eastern Kazakhstan was the southernmost part of the West Siberian Tomsk Gubernia (administrative district) of the Russian Empire. The Rudno Altay jasper in particular (in addition to other gemstone varieties) became widely renowned (Sokolev & Bulgak, 1981) (Fig. 10C). The first information on cut coloured stones of the Altay region dates back to the 18 th century (Mukaeva, 2011). The local lapidary production and gemstone business was concentrated in the Loktevskaya stone polishing factory. In 1802, another, newly established (by the Demidov Russian dynasty of entrepreneurs) factory, the ...
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... of the exploited coloured stone deposits was crucial for the production of jewellery and decorative art along with stones from the Ural Mountains; this also contributed to scientific and technical progress at the time (Mukaeva, 2008). In their broad natural varieties, gemstones of present-day eastern Kazakhstan became most famous for their beauty (Fig. 10A, B), such as the Rudno Altay jaspers reported by А.Е. Fersman in the 1920 monograph "The Precious and Coloured Stones of Russia", in reference to the Palevoye and Ridderskaya breccia ...
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... area discussed is located in the northern and eastern parts of the East Kazakhstan region, being bordered by mountain massifs in the north and east and opening into flat steppes and semi-deserts in the west and south (Fig. 1A). Geomorphologically, the broader territory is highly diverse, reflecting the complex regional orographical structure that is subdivided into several mountainous regions, i.e., the central Altay (Katunskyy, Listviaga, Eastern and Chindagatuy ranges), the southern Altay (Tarbagatay, Sarymsakty, Narym, Kurchum and Azutay ranges, ...
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... extends on the left side of the Irtysh Basin northwards to the city of Ust'-Kamenogorsk, the regional administrative Fig. 2. Structural relief in eastern Kazakhstan predisposes rich occurrences of a variety of gemstones in orogenic and metamorphic, as well as secondary sedimentary formations A -central Kazakh "melkosopochnik", the low-elevation, hilly ultramafic granitic plateau (700-800 m asl.), separated by shallow continental depressions; B -Tarbagatay Mountains (1,500-3,000 m asl.), incorporating the Yarma/Zharma-Saur gemstone-bearing formation; C -Kalba Mountains (500-1,600 m asl.) linked to neo-tectonics and characterised by an "onion" shaped top-surface-weathered granite structure; D -Kalba Formation, consisting largely of interbedded granitic-gneissic layers hosting pockets and veins of decorative minerals (Del'begetey Formation), representing one of the most opulent gemstone and decorative stone localities in the country; E -south Altay Mountains (2,000-4,000 m asl.) structured by igneous and metamorphic rocks (mainly granites, granodiorites, quartz-diorites and gneiss) including, in places, semi-precious minerals; F -Rudno Altay Mountains (1,200-2,000 m asl.), historically known for the most prolific and mineralogically diverse gemstone occurrences (Ridder-Sokol'noye Formation). For specific gemstone distribution, see Figure 1. Photographs by the author and economic centre. ...
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... regional geology reflects the dominant tectonic origin of the area of eastern Kazakhstan that structurally is constituted by parallel NW-SE oriented ranges of the uplifted Alpine massifs of the Chingiz-Tarbagatay (Fig. 2B) and Gorno Altay, separated by the tectonic graben/suture zone that forms the present Zaisan Basin (Fig. 1B). The transitional relief is represented by the Zharma-Saur and Rudno Altay, respectively (Fig. 2F). The corresponding key units are illustrated in Figure 3. A low-grade regional metamorphism of pelitic sedimentary rocks, following the Lower Palaeozoic granite intrusions with chlorite-muscovite shales, sericite-chlorite shales, ...
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... contextual studies at superficial gemstone-bearing sites, GPS-localised rock samples were taken in the field, largely from the area of the southern Altay (Fig. 1B) and documented by photography. Selected samples (50) were subjected to a detailed microscopic mineralogical study using polished sections and EDX point analysis (performed on a Cam Scan S4 device with Link ISIS 300 analyser). Microscopic observation in transmitted light with photographs included structural features of rock samples, ...
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... distribution of gemstone-bearing deposits here (Fig. 1B) corroborates the regional geological structure of the Altay-Chingis-Tarbagatay orogenic units (Fig. 3). The best-mapped and mineralogically most prolific rock mineral and metallogenic bodies of the West-Kalbinskaya and the Charsko-Zimunaiskaya suture zones of Palaeozoic granites, granodiorites and quartz diorites in particular are ...
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... and sapphires as specific varieties of corundum [Al 2 O 3 ] are precious gemstones of the mountainous area of eastern Kazakhstan. Red-coloured rubies are known from the well-known Uspenskiy deposit ( Fig. 1B: 2a). The first find of a high-quality ruby was made in the village of Primarkokolye (Uspenka District) in 1992: a dark red ruby crystal of 0.6-1.0 cm in size and of gem quality. This particular find initiated mapping of other occurrences. All specimens of ruby studied (chemically uniformly characterised by c. Al 53 wt.% and O 2 47 wt.%), ...
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... uniformly characterised by c. Al 53 wt.% and O 2 47 wt.%), originate from within the limits (contact zones) of Proterozoic metamorphic rocks-kyanite gneisses, migmatites and amphibolites (Chernenko, 2007). The occurrence of blue, pink and colourless sapphire was documented on the right bank of the River Kurchum in the south-east of the territory (Fig. 1B: 2b). A blue sapphire deposit with single gem crystals of up to 0.7 cm in length has recently been detected between the Kaldjir and Bala-Kaldjir rivers, tributaries of the River Black Irtysh (Fig. 1B: 2c). The local quality corundum attracts mich attention and is subject of ongoing exploratory ...
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... 2007). The occurrence of blue, pink and colourless sapphire was documented on the right bank of the River Kurchum in the south-east of the territory (Fig. 1B: 2b). A blue sapphire deposit with single gem crystals of up to 0.7 cm in length has recently been detected between the Kaldjir and Bala-Kaldjir rivers, tributaries of the River Black Irtysh (Fig. 1B: 2c). The local quality corundum attracts mich attention and is subject of ongoing exploratory ...
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... ruby occurrence is known from 3 km north of the Belukha Mountains (North Belukhinsk site) (Fig. 1B: 2d), is bound to high-aluminium crystalline schists and gneisses of the Southern Chua metamorphic complex. The ruby is noted in cuts with kyanite, silliamnite and garnet, occurring as transparent, dark red-coloured crystals of up to 3-5 cm in size (Gusev, ...
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... most precious gemstones of eastern Kazakhstan, consisting mineralogically of beryllium-aluminium cyclosilicates [Be 3 Al 2 (Si 6 O 18 )]. Beryl and its emerald and aquamarine varieties of greenish and bluish colours, respectively, have all been recorded from the Del'begetey mineral-bearing deposit ( Dyachkov et al., 1998;Gavrilenko et al., 2006) (Fig. 1B: 5). This is represented by transparent prismatic crystals of pale green to greyish green colours and sizes of up to 1.5 cm. The host rock is placed in the middle part of the zonal column (at the level of greisenization and silicification) that was discovered by А.G. Alekseyev in 1969. In the tectonic zone of the northwestern part of the ...
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... distribution of emeralds (green Cr-beryl), mapped in the northeastern part of eastern Kazakhstan, is geographically rather restricted. These precious stones occur largely in secondary position in alluvial sediments in the upper and middle reaches of the River Nikolayevka River that drains into the River Suikbulak (Fig. 1B: 4). The initial search for these gems, in Russian referred to as izumruds, was carried out at the eponymous site Izumrudnoye in the Charsko-Zimunaiskoy zone by А.Y. Dolbin and N.P. Michailov in 1947Michailov in -1948. A systematic emerald prospection in the original ultramafic formations was initiated in the early 1980s. Mineralisations ...
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... olivine (peridot) from the intrusive peridotite igneous for-mations accommodate flatter, grey-coloured variants. The estimated contents of emerald crystals in the enclosing ultramafic rocks are 4.5-13.6 ct/t; in picrites (high-magnesium olivine basalt) 6-12 ct/t. The green beryl gemstones of eastern Kazakhstan (the Del'begetey deposit) (Fig. 1B: 5) are characterised by very small concentrations of impurities (Fe, Mg, Na) ( Gavrilenko et al., 2006). In sedimentary alluvial placers, some individual larger (up to 1 cm) and high-quality emeralds can occasionally be found. Nearby emerald-bearing localities of Gorno Altay associated with quartz veins are found in the Kalguty valley ...
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... insignificant distributions of diamonds in eastern Kazakh ultramafic volcanic bodies (Chernenko, 2007). There is a diamond deposit in the district of the villages of Gromovka and Karasy, within the southern part of the Del'begetey granite multiphase zone (Р2) with biotite-hornblende granosyenites, biotite granites and leucocratic granites (Fig. 1B: 6). These diamonds are usually of smaller size (<1 carat) with frequent impurities and undesirable darker colouring of crystals predetermining their exclusively industrial ...
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... main garnet occurrences are situated in the western part of the Rudno Altay with minor localities in the Kalba Mountains (Fig. 1B: 7 & Gaskov, 2012). The quality and larger (up to 3 cm) size of raw crystals (Fig. 4C) predetermine their use in jewellery. Quality garnets, together with other precious stones such as beryl and tourmaline, are found in the neighbouring Chinese Altay in zonal granitic pegmatite formations alongside contacts with schist and gneiss bodies ...
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... in the form of easy-to-cut, emerald-shape facetted gems up to 1 cm in size. Within the close geographical area, this rare mineral is represented by translucent light pinkish to pale violet variants of small (3-5 mm), single crystals enclosed in veins of spodumene crystalline series of the Rudno Altay and in the Kalba-Narym zone (Beacon deposit) (Fig. 1B: 8). A geographically close distribution in pegmatite veins of granitoid porphyry is known from the neighbouring Gorno Altay (Alakhinsk site) which produces large (up to 1-2 cm), high-quality rose-coloured crystals (Gusev, 2007(Gusev, , ...
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... This mineral is bound to primary (crystalline/metamorphic) ore formations, but is also broadly present in secondary sedimentary deposits (alluvial gravels), having been accumulated by rapid-flowing mountain streams. Occurrences of high-quality quartz have been mapped in the zone of Karagoin-Sariozek (Targin, Bailer, Samsonovka and Karaozek areas; Fig. 1B: 10a-b). Pink and white-coloured variants (Fig. 9A, B) appear in the form of veins and kernel in pegmatites or granites of the Rudno Altay and the Kalbinskiy Complex Р1. The local quartz facies have a semi-lucent to translucent, massive or striped texture due to bismuth; chlorine and iron hydroxides impact this particular colouring. Some ...
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... show 1-2 m wide cracks consisting of white, pink and grey quartz masses. The estimated rock supplies for industrial purposes are 1,500 tonnes (Z. Chernenko, pers. communication, 2016). Other key sites with superior, fine-crystal stone quality are found at Piezokvartsevoye, in the northern Pri-Irtyshiye area and at ProkhodnoyBelok in Rudno Altay (Fig. 1B: 10c, ...
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... attractive, clear and perfectly transparent rock crystals have been known since the 18 th century, with the principal locality situated on the left bank of the River Irtysh (Fig. 1B: 9). Over 200 representative samples are on display in the mineralogy collections of the East Kazakhstan Technical University with crystals measuring up to 20 cm in length. Genetically, all samples belong to the pegmatitic and hydrothermal (quartz-veins) group. The local eastern Kazakh crystal quartz-hosting deposits are best developed in ...
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... (quartz-veins) group. The local eastern Kazakh crystal quartz-hosting deposits are best developed in the Sirektas-Sarsazan-Kobukskaya zone of the Zharma-Saur Formation (Akyailau, Biesimas and some other sites), in the northwestern Kalba Range (Kalba Formations) and the Savushinskiy and Tigerekskiy granite formations of the Rudno Altay (Fig. 1B: 9a). Isolated mineral occurrences have been documented in the southern Altay area, as well as at some other places. In the border zone area of the upper Bukhtarma Valley (east of village Arshaty), quartz crystals of up to 10 cm in size occur in local bedrock ...
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... quartz deposit, Dungali, is found in the Kalba Massif (Fig. 1B: 9b). Chambers of crystal pegmatites here form lateral bands, 1.5-1.7 km long in the fractured sub-latitudinal crack zones of the host formation ( Dyachkov et al., 2014b). Pegmatites are represented by small, isometric and lentiform bodies of a few metres in size of enclosing graphic structure at contacts of granite to quartz-microcline ...
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... veins (the latter attaining lengths of 200 m and thicknesses of 20-30 m) incorporated in Sirektas granites. This gemstone has been known from and industrially exploited in the region since the late 19 th century with the opening of the Michailovsky and Solomonovsky mines of the Chingiz-Tarbagatay formations in southern part of eastern Kazakhstan (Fig. 1B: 17), producing a bluish amethyst facies (Fig. 4D). The local crystals are characterised by bright light-violet colours, hexagonal shapes and sizes of up to 3 cm. Identical gemstones are known from some archaeological sites of various (prehistoric -early historical) ages across the country (Vdovina, 2001), pointing to exploration and ...
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... (red) and achroite (colourless) varieties (17g in total), semitransparent reddish-brown rubellite, blue indicolite and intensely green tourmalines (85g in total). Another principal deposit, the Beacon Deposit, is found on the left bank of the River Irtysh, 3 km from Ognevka Hill in the vicinity of the eponymous village in the Ulansk District (Fig. 1B: 3). Here most of the coloured tourmalines originate from the "Spodumenovaya 1" vein (c. 200 m in length and 2-3 m in thickness). Gem-quality tourmalines (transparent and opaque rubellites, green verdelites and achroites) are associated in paragenesis with spodumene, lepidolite, pink quartz, rock crystal and morions. Opaque and variously ...
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... gemstone, primarily in the red/pink variety of the elbaite group (Manutchehr-Danai, 2010). A specific multi-facetted form of the red tourmaline group [A(D 3 )G 6 (T 6 O 18 )(BO 3 ) 3 X 3 Z)], imitating a true ruby, is for the time being, exclusively known from one spot in eastern Kazakhstan, namely the Asubulak deposit in the Kalba Mountains (Fig. 1B: 3). This gemstone is genetically associated with quartz veins inside granitic bodies. The rubellite is characterised by a reddish-brown colour and a mat lustre (Fig. 4B), in sizes of 0.5-1.5 cm. Larger transparent, superior-quality specimens with a solid structure fit for jewellery purposes are rather ...
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... 2013). Within the study area, it is represented by a range of magnesium-aluminium (MgAl 2 O 4 ) mineral components. The local spinel gemstone variety (MgO 28 wt.%, Al 2 O 3 72 wt.%) is occasionally found in the polymetallic deposits of ultramafic peridotite bodies (Asubulak Formation) of the Rudno (Ore) Altay in the northern part of the territory (Fig. 1B), consisting mostly of olivine and pyroxene minerals. Although small in size (usually 0.3-0.5 cm), these deep-red coloured minerals, typically of cathedral crystal form, are very decorative and of superior quality, thus predestined for ...
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... of green-coloured variants, show an admixture of various chemical elements (CuO 10 wt.%, Al 2 O 3 36 wt.%, P 2 O 5 34 wt.%, H 2 O 19 wt.%) and variable concentrations of organic substances. The main turquoise host body, originating from percolation of acidic solutions into pre-existing minerals, is found at the Zyryanovsk mine of the Rudno Altay (Fig. 1B: 11). The present regional geographical occurrence of turquoise presupposes formation in geo-settings affected by periodic past-climate aridifications with deep bedrock weathering ( Schumann, 2006), in conjunction with the regional orogenic activity. The local turquoise variant displays characteristic copper-sulphide cavity fillings in the ...
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... east Kazakh rhodonite (Mn 2+ SiO 3 ) is a highly decorative gemstone found in the same polymetallic deposits as crystal quartz and centred in the Rudno Altay region (Chekmar Site) (Fig. 1B: 14). Its chemical composition is relatively uniform (MnO 30-46 wt.%, FeO 2-12 wt.%, CaO 4-7 wt.%), rendering a mostly pinkish and rosy colour to it. The main orefield is structured by basalt-andesite-rhyolite (D2ef-D2gv) and sedimentary argillite-silt (D2ef-D3f) facies. The contact between retinues is tectonic, dipping steeply. The ...
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... a feldspar mineral of the plagioclase series [(Ca, Na)(Al, Si) 4O8 ] and among the most decorative stones in the study area, is found as discontinuous veins in mafic igneous rocks at the contact with metamorphic bedrock formations, mainly in the Rudno Altay area (Fig. 1B: 15). The local variants are characterised by distinctive blue colours and a shining lustre. Chemically, the main constituents of the Beloulbinskoe-southern Altay mineral zone are SiO 2 (68 wt.%), Al 2 O 3 (19 wt.%), Na 2 O (10 wt.%) and CaO (3 wt.%). The zone consists largely of granites interspersed by metamorphic pockets containing, ...
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... occasionally gold, giving the characteristic yellowish colour. Occurrences of Kazakh chrysoprase are currently limited to a few, yet relatively, rich sites (e.g., Sachanbiński et al., 2001). In eastern Kazakhstan, these are mapped in the Kalba Highlands in the southeast and in the Semipalatinskoye Pri-Irtyshiye in the northeast of the territory (Fig. 1B: 12a, c); both places have quality ...
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... occurrences are also known from the Rudno Altay (Glubokoye District) (Fig. 1B: 12a-d). The colour of the local chrysoprase ranges from white to blue-green, depending on the admixture of Ni compounds in the intergrain texture. The content of nickel in the chrysoprase varies (0.3-3.3 wt.%). Principal gemstone deposits are located near the Maloye Karasy and Belogorskiy settlements in the Kalba Range foothills; these were ...
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... occurs within a small area (c. 10 km 2 ) with a total estimated extractable volume of c. 3 m 3 . The local chrysoprase has a pale green to bluish-green colour with uneven spots which reduce the artistic/decorative qualities of this gemstone (Fig. 6B). Another site in eastern Kazakhstan for chrysoprase (and mercury), the Kyzylchar deposit (Fig. 1B: 12b), was found in a zone of structural orogenic cracks containing nodules and veins of chrysoprase as a result of andesite bedrock lateritisation. Several chrysoprase mineral occurrences are known from Gorno Altay (Gusev, 2007). This gem is principally destined for jewel ...
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... the Kara-Adir and Kyzyl-Adir Ranges in the western part of the Manrak Mountains. Agates also occur in formations of Hercynian-age orogeny in the andesite-basaltic (Р2-Т1) series in the Rudno Altay, in the Kalba Range and in the basalt-riodacite-andesite series of the Zharma-Saur Formation at the localities of Tarbagatay, Manrak, Saure and Saikan (Fig. 1B: 13a-d) (Chernenko & Chlachula, 2017). In the Del'begetey granite formation in the north-central part of the territory, south of the River Irtysh, there are agate layers with a mosaic of colours ranging from white, blue and yellow to intense red (Fig. 6D). These variegated siliceous solutions originated during the last stage of magmatic ...
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... part of the Katun' Range. Some isolated dark-green and structurally homogeneous nephrite pebbles, 1-5 cm in size, were found in secondary position in alluvial gravels of the River Koksu (a left tributary of the River Argut) and the upper reaches of the River Bukhtarma within the nearest Russian-Kazakh border zone in the Plateau Ukok direction (Fig. 1B: 21a-b). The original gem-bearing formations are most likely represented by serpentine-olivine-tremolite rocks within gneissic shales. On the other (Gorno Altay) side, the Tomul-Muinokskoy ore field with variegated jade segregations of bright-green to greenish-grey colour is considered the most promising for industrial exploitation, with the ...
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... an aggregate of a micro-granular spotted quartz of the chalcedony series with inclusions of other mineral phases and impurities (Kostov, 2010), jasper is one of the most widely distributed decorative stones in the wider Altay area (Fig. 8) with a long history of exploitation and artisanal use (Shvetsov, 1998;Simonov et al., 2010) (Fig. 10). Well-known local variants are represented by pied or speckled siliceous stones with a dense and well-polishable structure consisting of micro-quartz, often with an admixture of chalcedony, oxides of iron, aluminium and fibred minerals of different colours, most frequently red, green and blue. Yellow, grey and black varieties also ...
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... major multi-coloured jaspers in eastern Kazakhstan are associated with the Palevoye and Ridderskaya breccias in the Kyzyl-Tube Mountains and the Kalba Range (Fig. 1B: 16a, b). Jasper deposits, hosting chrysoprase, are found in the Glubokoye District close to the town of Ridder (Ridder-Sokol'noye sites), and in the Glubokoye deposits. Another site is located in the Cholzun Range on the Russian-Kazakhstan border. The Rudno-Altay jasper is most famous for its wide diversity and attractive appearance with a ...
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... Russian-Kazakhstan border. The Rudno-Altay jasper is most famous for its wide diversity and attractive appearance with a range of colours ( Fig. 8A-E). The local rock bodies have been exploited since the 18 th century and have acclaimed world fame. Several unique works of art made from Rudno Altay jasper are on display in major European museums (Fig. 10C). Field exploration works are currently projected on the southwestern flanks of the Bistrushinskaya Unit, near the Bistrushinskaya mine (Z. Chernenko, pers. communication, 2016). In addition to various jasper varieties, there are also high-quality marbles. The reserves of jasper in the nearby Russian Gorno Altay amount to about 400 m 3 ...
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... other coloured and ornamental stones (Ziskind, 1989) of aesthetic appearance, there is fluorite (CaF 2 ) with the best-known geological occurrence associated with the Kalba Range and the world-famous Karadzhal deposit in the northern Almaty Region (Fig. 1B: 18a, b). This mineral is characterised by a translucent sparkling bluish-violet colour with a high range of spectral variegation. In spite of its attractive appearance (Fig. 5E, F), fluorite represents a bulk raw material in the local metallurgy. More than 200 sites with fluorite occurrences have been mapped in the bordering Gorno Altay in ...
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... bright and more widely distributed, high-quality minerals such as coloured tourmalines and rock crystals are employed. An even higher potential for Kazakhstan, as well as the Russian Gorno Altay gemstone industry, can be ascribed to decorative and easy-to-work semi-precious stones with rich regional resources, such as jasper, agate and chalcedony (Fig. 10A, B). Of certain importance are deposits of decorative rocks used for building constructions and home interior industry purposes, such as coloured granites, gneiss or marbles ( Fig. 9C-F), the resources of which are fairly opulent in the country (Beldeeva & Somin, 2014). The most valuable precious stones of Kazakhstan (sapphire, ruby, ...
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... concerns primarily the main gemstone distribution areas of the Rudno Altay and the Kalba and Zharma-Saur Mountain areas. The new gemstone locations will increase the region's mineral potential and attract investments, currently limited to gemstone mining sites such as Yubileynoe (coloured tourmaline), Gromovskoye (topaz) and Izumrudnoye (emerald) (Fig. ...
Citations
... The studied region is rich in mineral deposits such as barite, coal, iron, polymetallic ores, bentonite clays, vermiculite, talc, limestone, granite, marble, gypsum, and quartz sands. There are large reserves of uranium, phosphorites, iron ores, etc. [49]. Mining and weathering of minerals can be regarded as alternative sources of element accumulation in moss. ...
Kazakhstan, due to intensive industrial development, experiences severe air pollution, especially in urban areas. The moss biomonitoring technique has been applied to assess the level of air pollution in the most populous part of the country: the Almaty region and Shymkent, a city of republican significance. The content of 40 elements in Hylocomium splendens moss samples was determined by means of neutron activation analysis supplemented with the ICP-OES technique. Multivariate statistics were applied to detect and characterize the main air pollution sources. Among them can be highlighted a variety of natural (dust, sandstorms) and anthropogenic (fossil fuel combustion, vehicles, gas flaring in oil and gas production, mining and industrial enterprises) sources that contribute to air pollution. According to contamination factor values, the pollution level of the investigated area varied from suspected to severe. The potential ecological risk index calculated for selected elements revealed low ecological risk to human health in the Almaty region and moderate risk in Shymkent. A comparison of the biomonitoring data with results of similar studies performed in neighboring countries showed an increased level of air pollution in the investigated region.
... The Kalba Mountains are built by granitic-gneissic rocks (the Del'begetey Formation) [65,66]. The volcanites are high acidity coarse-grain granites [67]. Erosional activity through the geological times shaped the former surface by planation into ...
... The Kalba Mountains are built by granitic-gneissic rocks (the Del'begetey Formation) [65,66]. The volcanites are high acidity coarse-grain granites [67]. Erosional activity through the geological times shaped the former surface by planation into sandwich-like foliated rocky structures overlying the basal non-weathered granite masses. ...
Steppe and semi-desert lakes of Central Asia represent unique and still poorly known aquatic ecosystems. The paper provides summaries of multi-proxy environmental and biological investigations of the previously unexplored ground of Sibe lakes in the naturally pristine zone of East Kazakhstan, and of their contributions to people. Data on the taxonomic composition of zooplankton and zoobenthos of these freshwater lacustrine basins are presented in terms of the species’ frequency of occurrence; the abundance of the aquatic biomass and the analyzed water geochemical variables insofar as they are dependent and correlative. The qualitative and quantitative records display variability in the biocenosis diversity due to the lakes’ geochemistry and hydrology differences—some lakes being oligotrophic and others being moderately trophic. In the latter case, the lakes characterized by an increased macrozoobenthos biomass are favourable for local ichthyofauna. Sapro-biological analysis reveals the predominance of β-saprobic species in the zooplankton composition pointing to slight or moderate pollution of surface waters due to natural biotic substances. This observation is in agreement with differences in the water quality of solitary lakes. The uneven distributions of benthic invertebrates (in terms of taxonomy and species populations) in the water bodies suggest specific hydro-ecological conditions that predetermine the structure of the lakes’ biocenosis. The littoral part of the lakes is characterized by the highest abundance of zooplankton and benthic fauna. The Sibe lakes are an example of an autonomous functioning of the lacustrine basins in the upland arid steppe zone, which is characterized by pronounced climate “continentality” and a high level of the sub-aquatic flora and fauna endemism. The present results are relevant to the understanding of the ecosystems’ dynamics and the modern anthropogenic impacts upon the pristine parkland-steppe landscapes of Central Asia, with implications for regional nature protection and sustainable eco-recreation.
... These sacred and cultural sites represent an integral part of the regional geoheritage [21,79]. The Kurchum area together with the nearby Kalba Highlands and the Tarbagatai Range host diverse gemstone occurrences of precious, semi-precious and decorative stones (including topaz, sapphires, emeralds, tourmalines, jasper and other) used and traded since the ancient times, and documented by the findings of cut-stones of the regional geographic provenance excavated in the Altai "royal" burial mounds sites [16,80,81]. ...
In spite of picturesque landscapes, natural beauties and authentic traditional lifestyles to be seen in East Kazakhstan, tourism is far from being developed. The Kazakh Altai (called the Kazakh Switzerland) is one the most colourful parts of the country and, indeed, all Central Asia. The attractiveness of this geographically isolated region (formerly a part of the Imperial Russia), consisting of rocky semi-deserts, vast parkland-steppes, and rugged mountain terrains, is reflected in its distinctive geological and geomorphological character, its pristine nature, and its extraordinary geodiversity and biodiversity. This study presents a roster of geotourism and ecotourism loci for the broader Altai area within a framework of sustainable development. The modelled assessment of the tourism and recreation potential is based upon multi-proxy analyses of GIS, DEM, and cartographic data. It integrates the most appealing natural (biotic and abiotic) site-specific natural features across all physiographic zones within a broad region. The most significant and representative geosites fall within three geographic sectors suitable for geo- and ecotourism. Prospects for travel to these places are enhanced by the presence of numerous prehistoric archaeological sites and historical monuments, which document the rich, multi-ethnic background of Kazakhstan and the ancient Silk Road that traverses it. These geological, environmental and cultural resources, and the regional geoheritage and environmental conservation concepts have been figured into strategies for economic growth of rural Kazakhstan. Visitors travelling to this most appealing region are constrained by climate of pronounced continentality, seasonality, geographic accessibility, the international border-zone regulations and a lack of services of an international standard.
... The study area is located at the easternmost limits of the Republic of Kazakhstan bordering in the north the Omsk and Altai regions of SW Siberia, Russia, and in the east the Xing-Jang Province (NW China) (Fig. 1). The district of East Kazakhstan (with the administrative centre Ust'-Kamenogorsk/Oeskemen) belongs to the historically developed parts of the country due to rich natural resources (including decorative stones and precious minerals) industrially processed since the seventeenth century (Sherba et al. 2000;Chernenko and Chlachula 2017;Chlachula 2020). The present climate is strongly continental (MAT − 5/− 3°C) with warm summers and very cold dry winters and rather pronounced seasonal temperature variations (Yegorina 2015). ...
... Except for the natural settings, the places/outcrops of local gemstones known since the ancient times enhanced the settlement and ancient exploration attractiveness of present East Kazakhstan. Precious and semi-precious stones were exploited and traded along the northern part of the Silk Road that followed through the study area since prehistory as testified by finds of gemstone jewels from the Bronze Age, Iron Age, and the early historical archaeological sites (Chlachula 2020). Overall, the dual unity of the cultural and natural heritage of East Kazakhstan in the frame of the Altai-Sayan Eco-Region is of major relevance for geo-tourism promotion and geo-site conservation (Sukhova and Garms 2014). ...
East Kazakhstan is physiographically a diverse region of north-central Asia encompassing a broad array of geomorphic zones and geo-ecosystems from the western open steppes to the interior arid basins with wind-sculptured surfaces of the surrounding rocky highlands aligned by the high alpine mountain ranges. The complex regional geological history gave rise to a mosaic of impressive landforms located within a relatively small area. The extraordinary relief with many unique geo-sites was generated by dynamic processes associated with the late Cainozoic orogenesis in conjunction with the past climatic variations. The cyclicity of bedrock weathering and mass sediment transfer are manifested by Mesozoic fossiliferous formations, large sand dune fields, and loess-palaeosol-cryogenic series providing archives of the Quaternary evolution. Pleistocene glaciations followed by cataclysmic floods from the released ice-dammed lakes during the recessional glacier stages have produced an exceptional imprint in the mountain areas. Many archaeological localities and historic monuments, some being a part of the UNESCO World Natural and Cultural Heritage, are associated with the most prominent topographic places. Geo-tourism focusing on the most exquisite landscapes and spectacular geological settings is the new trend in the country with still minor activities that take advantage of the region’s supreme geoheritage potential. The great geo-diversity accentuates the touristic value of this still marginally explored geographic area. Reconnaissance, documentation, and publicity of the most unique geo-sites and geo-parks provide an impetus for their registration in the national and international nature heritage protection programs under proper geo-environmental conservation policies.
The Rudny Altai is a western segment of the Altai orogenic belt. Its geological richness makes its geoheritage exploration an urgent matter. Investigations in the Loktevsky District (Altai Region, Russian Federation) have led to the finding of three notable localities, which are proposed as geosites. Field investigations and both qualitative and semi-quantitative (scoring by criteria) studies were carried out to characterize and value the geoheritage properties of these localities. The Neverovsky palaeoreef is a relatively large geosite, representing a Frasnian reef developed on a volcanic edifice. The Zolotukha section and the Razdolnoe section are smaller geosites representing deep-marine facies of the Giventian–Frasnian transition and the late Frasnian, respectively. Seven geoheritage types are established in the Neverovsky palaeoreef, and four geoheritage types are established in the other two geosites. Examination of rarity, accessibility, vulnerability, and other properties allows the ranking of the Neverovsky palaeoreef globally and the other two geosites regionally. The three proposed geosites need special geoconservation measures (especially regarding their rich fossil content). The palaeoreef can be used for the promotion of local tourism.
Beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) is a well-known mineral, most famously in its vivid green form of emerald, but also as a range of other colors. Prominent varieties of beryl aside from emerald include aquamarine, red beryl, heliodor, goshenite, and morganite. There has not been a significant amount of research dedicated to comparing the crystal-chemical differences among the varieties of beryl except in determining chromophoric cations. While the H2O content within structural channels of emerald has been explored, and the H2O content of individual beryl specimens has been studied, there has not yet been a study comparing the H2O content systematically across beryl varieties. In this study we consider single-crystal X-ray diffraction data and electron probe microanalyses of 80 beryl specimens of six primary varieties, to compare and contrast their crystal chemistry. Beryl cation substitutions are dominantly coupled substitutions that require Na to enter a structural channel site. The results indicate that with increasing Na content beryl varieties diverge into two groups, characterized by substitutions at octahedral or tetrahedral sites, and that the dominant overall cation substitutions in each beryl variety tend to be different in more than just their chromophores. We find that the relation between Na and H2O content in beryl is consistent for beryl with significant Na content, but not among beryl with low Na content. Natural red beryl is found to be anhydrous, and heliodor has Na content too low to reliably determine H2O content from measured Na. We determined equations and recommendations to relate the Na and H2O content in emerald, aquamarine, goshenite, and morganite from a crystallographic perspective that is applicable to beryl chemistry measured by other means. This research will help guide future beryl studies in classifying beryl variety by chemistry and structure and allow the calculation of H2O content in a range of beryl varieties from easily measured Na content instead of requiring the use of expensive or destructive methods.
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a very simple but capable spectroscopic analytical method that performs simultaneous multi-element analysis in a single laser shot. By using LIBS, we can identify artificial gemstones that look like real ones. In this study, the samples that are used include five different gemstones namely Sapphire, Emerald, Amethyst, Tourmaline, Topaz, and two artificial replicas of Amethyst and Emerald that closely resemble their original counterparts. The LIBS spectra were collected from each of the gemstones by ablating them with a Q-Switched Nd: YAG Laser of wavelength 1064 nm, pulse width (6–10 ns), and maximum energy of 1000 mJ. The radiation from the resulting plasma was recorded with a compact miniature USB2000+ spectrometer in the wavelength range of 600–900 nm. Each sample underwent at least five cleaning laser shots before 10 measurement shots. Two different datasets were prepared namely dataset 1, comprising full-length spectra, and dataset 2, comprising spectral lines only. We applied Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on LIBS spectral data to visualize its discriminability and Random Forest (RF) to perform classification. Scree plots describe the discriminability of samples generated in PCA and suggested PC1 and PC2. Loading plots showed the most significant spectral regions for PC1, PC2, and PC3 which covered the data variance of 67.95%, 20.16%, and 6.28% respectively. For the RF classification accuracy, the best splitting for training and testing sets was 80–20%. It demonstrated a perfect 100% accuracy in discriminating gemstones with both dataset 1 and dataset 2.
