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A) Landsat 5 MSS image of Harlaa and Harar from January 23, 1986 (60 m resolution; image courtesy of NASA/USGS); B) Landsat 5 TM image of Harlaa and Harar from February 20, 1996 (30 m resolution; image courtesy of NASA/USGS); and C) Landsat 8 image of Harlaa and Harar from March 1, 2017 (image courtesy of NASA/USGS).
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The African landscape is set to change dramatically in the coming years, and will have a detrimental impact on the inherent archaeological and cultural heritage elements if not monitored adequately. This paper explores how satellite imagery, in particular open source imagery (Google Earth, multispectral satellite imagery from Landsat and Sentinel-2...
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... middle image is Landsat 5 TM from February 20, 1996 and is one of the earliest images available with a resolution of 30 m per pixel. The Landsat 8 image at the bottom of Figure 4 is from March 1, 2017. Visual inspection of the images prior to classification presented in Figure 4 and particularly Figure 5, clearly shows the substantial difference in settlement size at Ganda Biyo (Harlaa) which has increased significantly over this time period. ...
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... Landsat 8 image at the bottom of Figure 4 is from March 1, 2017. Visual inspection of the images prior to classification presented in Figure 4 and particularly Figure 5, clearly shows the substantial difference in settlement size at Ganda Biyo (Harlaa) which has increased significantly over this time period. Classification and counting of the buildings in Figure 5 substantiates the increase in settlement size. ...
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... Landsat TM 5 images from 1986 and 1996 and the Landsat 8 image from 2017 provided in Figure 4 indicate the ribbon development that has occurred along the road between Harlaa and Harar, particularly at the roadside towns of Haramaya and Awaday. A related consequence of this urban expansion and population growth is the almost total disappearance of Lake Haramaya over the same period. ...
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... related consequence of this urban expansion and population growth is the almost total disappearance of Lake Haramaya over the same period. It can be seen through comparing the images in Figure 4 that the lake has declined from approximately 4 km long by 1.5 km wide at its greatest extent, to a couple of small pools. Although archaeological survey of the region between Harlaa and Harar has not been completed, anthropogenic action attested by settlement development and environmental change is likely to have impacted on heritage. ...
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... Geospatial and remote sensing approaches to archaeological research in Africa have increased in visibility and importance in the last decade, and this has coincided with calls to increase the accessibility of these methods for researchers with limited funding (Davis and Douglass 2020; Klehm and Gokee 2020). One avenue for increased geospatial accessibility has been the development free, low-cost, and open-access tools for archaeological remote sensing and geospatial research (Casana 2020;Cerasoni et al. 2022;Davis and Sanger 2021;Fisher et al. 2021;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Sadr 2016;Rayne et al. 2020). This paper contributes by developing an archaeological predictive model for Zanzibar, Tanzania, using free geospatial datasets and open-access software. ...
This paper presents a case study using zonal statistical analysis for archaeological predictive modeling with open-access software and free geospatial datasets. The method is applied to the rural landscapes of Zanzibar, Tanzania on the Swahili Coast. This study used QGIS (version 3.28) to perform zonal statistical analyses of environmental datasets weighted by settlement classes digitized from a 1907 historical map, to create predictive models for settlement across the island. These models were compared against the locations of major precolonial archaeological sites on the island and site data from a random stratified archaeological survey in an environmentally diverse region of northern Zanzibar. The results show strong correspondences between larger permanent site locations and areas of high likelihood for site detection in the predictive model. Additionally, there were correspondences between areas of lower likelihood for site detection and smaller, ephemeral sites related to agricultural production in swidden field plots. These results attest to Swahili rural complexity and enable an understanding of the specific environmental affordances that structured settlement and land use over the last millennium, in ways that shaped colonial contact in rural areas and altered the sociopolitical development of Zanzibar and the East African coast. The methods described here may be applicable for researchers and heritage managers in Africa and the Global South, where funding for large-scale field projects, expensive satellite imagery, or software licensing is limited.
... At the same time, RS techniques have proven to be extremely useful in increasing knowledge of CH for the discovery of buried remains as has been demonstrated in the literature during the last two decades (Abate and Lasaponara 2019; Campana and Forte 2006;Masini and Soldovieri 2017). In addition, the recent development of a policy oriented towards the free dissemination of data (open-and big-data) and tools (open-source licences) for processing, as well as the lowering of hardware costs and the development of increasingly high-performance tools, has allowed researchers and scholars to significantly increase the quantity and quality of data they can use for EO and RS research applied to CH (Diara and Rinaudo 2018;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Lasaponara, Abate, and Masini 2022;Štular, Eichert, and Lozić 2021). The present study was conducted using several RS data, at different scales . ...
... As seen in Figure 10, several additional lines of boulders are traceable above the Kasakh floodplain just west of Aparan. (Top inset photo credit: Project ArAGATS) Ian Lindsay and Arshaluys Mkrtchyan 176 Advances in Archaeological Practice | A Journal of the Society for American Archaeology | May 2023 2017;Bini et al. 2018;Bowen et al. 2017;Casana 2015;Danti et al. 2017;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Parcak et al. 2016;Plekhov and Levine 2018; ...
Recent years have seen the rapid expansion of airborne and spaceborne remote-sensing products adopted by archaeologists for interpreting ancient landscapes and managing heritage resources. A growing and increasingly specialized literature attests to the promise and availability of commercial and publicly funded satellite imagery, as well as UAV-mounted sensors across a range of resolutions and price points. In the South Caucasus (including the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia), a growing commitment to landscape approaches in archaeology is stimulating the adoption of satellite remote sensing as an important new tool for identifying and managing archaeological resources while tracing the impact of historic land-use alterations in survey areas. Nevertheless, budgetary challenges and a lack of training opportunities among international partners and heritage organizations outside of the funding streams of large academic institutions can lead to widening technological gulfs in the discipline that reinforce colonial relationships. Building on recent technical articles covering specific imagery datasets, this article aims to address this by providing a general review of free or low-cost remotely sensed datasets available to archaeologists, with the aim of broadening awareness of these important tools and their vocabularies, and illustrating them with recent published examples from the South Caucasus.
... Recently, a few studies assessed the potentiality of S-1 and S-2 data in cultural heritage domain, including archaeological heritage monitoring, landscape archaeology, and the detection of archaeological proxy indicators in diverse regions of Europe, Asia and Africa, and opportunities to use them for the automated detection of archaeological features (Agapiou et al. 2014;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Orengo et al. 2020;Zanni and De Rosa 2019). ...
Aswan is one of Egypt’s most attractive cities, with numerous of historical monuments. The current work in the Aghakhan archaeological site, is primarily focused on the acquisition, processing, and interpretation of the obtained geophysical data, for delineating any possible buried archaeological relics or tombs. For achieving this goal, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Multichannel Analysis of Surface Wave (MASW) have been applied with minimal time, effort, and expense. First of all, GPR measurements were conducted over the archaeological sites with 26 profiles running from south to north and 16 profiles extend from west to east direction with profiles interval 2 m. This study provides a broad overview of the subsurface archaeological features. In additions, GPR data in the form of time-slice maps reveal several notable anomalies buried in Aghakhan site. Sequentially, to validate the results, the Multichannel Analysis of Surface Wave (MASW) technique is applied; eight profiles were conducted in the same location of the GPR’s profiles. Indeed, the integration and comparison between the GPR’s and MASW’s profiles is commonly utilized to complete the image, and it revealed successfully a range of probable archaeological features and structures buried at a depth of around 2–3 m, which may be interpreted as tombs and ancient structure walls.
... Recently, a few studies assessed the potentiality of S-1 and S-2 data in cultural heritage domain, including archaeological heritage monitoring, landscape archaeology, and the detection of archaeological proxy indicators in diverse regions of Europe, Asia and Africa, and opportunities to use them for the automated detection of archaeological features (Agapiou et al. 2014;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Orengo et al. 2020;Zanni and De Rosa 2019). ...
Nowadays, the integration of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and magnetic methods has been widely used in archaeological prospections for producing high resolution images of multidimensional targets. This integration was applied for the first time in Tell Dibgou, Northeastern Nile Delta (Egypt) to image the Islamic architectures which has been proved by the findings of mud-bricks, pottery and glass in the highly landscapes. The ERT and magnetic surveys were conducted in three integrated steps. At first, a Wenner Beta (WB) resistivity profile was measured perpendicular to the axis of the hill. Then, the Total Magnetic Field (TMF) survey was carried out on a grid covered the highest part of the area. Finally, the expected targets in the form of walls and closed rooms were imaged by high resolution 2D and 3D ERT surveys. The correlation between ERT (2D/3D) and magnetic results was satisfactory for imaging the unseen archaeological structures as indicated from the excavations during and after the geophysical surveys. Therefore, the joint application of ERT and magnetic techniques for near surface prospecting represents a very useful tool for multidimensional archaeological investigations and can provide a quantitative contribution to describe the spatial distribution of unseen objects. The interpretation of the 2D and 3D resistivity imaging provided information on existence of linear resistivity anomalies corresponding to buried walls and some small archaeological remains detached from the main walls. Additionally, the Tilt Angle and Euler Deconvolution techniques have been used to the magnetic data in a comparative manner with ERT results to determine the positions and depths of buried structures. The results constitute an encouraging approach using joint application of ERT and magnetic methods for further archaeological prospection in other parts of Tell Dibgou or elsewhere.
... Recently, a few studies assessed the potentiality of S-1 and S-2 data in cultural heritage domain, including archaeological heritage monitoring, landscape archaeology, and the detection of archaeological proxy indicators in diverse regions of Europe, Asia and Africa, and opportunities to use them for the automated detection of archaeological features (Agapiou et al. 2014;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Orengo et al. 2020;Zanni and De Rosa 2019). ...
Dealing with cultural heritage is a sensitive process since each monument has its history, story, conditions, and scharacter. In this work, we assessed and evaluated the seismic vulnerability of a well-preserved cultural heritage structure that is the minaret of the Madrasa of the Princess Tatar al-Higaziya in Cairo. We selected the minaret site's input seismic source based on a physics-based ground motion simulation named multi-scenario seismic input (MCSI). This seismic source was used for the assessment of the dynamic behaviour of the minaret. A detailed numerical model of the minaret was developed in SAP2000. An initial bi-directional response spectrum analysis was performed on the minaret, considering the coefficient of subgrade reaction of soil. Both a record of the 1992 Cairo earthquake and synthetic seismograms were used. The calculations confirm no damage in the case of the 1992 earthquake while, in the worst-case scenario, the minaret could suffer significant tensile stresses that exceed the tensile strength of the limestone material. Results denote enormous cracking and even crushing in the minaret body, particularly at the base and at a geometry transition zone right above the base. Furthermore, the tensile stresses’ level predicts collapse or severe minaret damage under the C-MCSI-50% bidirectional response spectrum load. Results were confirmed by time-history analyses performed on the model. The results emphasize the importance of predicting the behaviour of heritage and historical structures against strong earthquakes, especially for those that share similar structural characteristics (e.g., height, construction time and materials) with our case study historical structure.
... Recently, a few studies assessed the potentiality of S-1 and S-2 data in cultural heritage domain, including archaeological heritage monitoring, landscape archaeology, and the detection of archaeological proxy indicators in diverse regions of Europe, Asia and Africa, and opportunities to use them for the automated detection of archaeological features (Agapiou et al. 2014;Elfadaly et al. 2020;Khalaf and Insoll 2019;Orengo et al. 2020;Tapete and Cigna 2017;Zanni and De Rosa 2019). ...
... ellite based study of palaeoenvironment: identification of palaeorivers in Norther Apulia (South Italy) using Sentinel 1 and 2Agapiou et al. (2019) evaluated the potential of the synergic use of multitemporal Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 dataset to image and semi-automatically extract archaeological features of Neolithic landscape in Thessalian plain.Khalaf and Insoll (2019) explored open source satellite imagery, including Sentinel-2 for the monitoring and protection of Islamic archaeological landscapes in Ethiopia.Finally,Zanni and De Rosa (2019) identified and reconstructed the ancient viability between the Roman cities of Aquileia (Aquileia, Italy) and Singidunum (Serbia), by means vegetation indices de ...
In the recent decades, the availability of Earth Observation technologies (from satellite, aerial and ground) for the study and preservation of the human past is stepping into a golden age. The currently available data, tools and services (including open cloud resources to process big satellite data) opened up a new frontier of possibilities and applications which at the same time also pose several challenges to be faced. All of the diverse aspects ranging from the research and innovation to the application issues, namely from the science to services, must to be tackled by the scientific community in conjunction with the “end uses needs” to ensure an effective and reliable applicability. The use of space technologies, big data, artificial intelligence (AI) for the study of the human past highlights the multi-trans and inter-disciplinary scientific and technical aspects not only for the novel concepts and approaches proposed, but also for the development between and across diverse disciplines In this paper, the state of the art in the field of EO Big data and artificial intelligence for the study of human past is brief summarized.
... Empat situs yang digunakan berada di wilayah geografis dan geomorfologi yang berbeda: tiga di Dataran Tinggi Somalia (Harlaa, Harar, dan Sheikh Hussein), dan satu di tepi Depresi Afar (Nora), dan memiliki sejarah yang bervariasi. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa citra satelit open source menawarkan mekanisme untuk mengevaluasi status situs dan konservasi dari waktu ke waktu dalam skala besar, dan dapat digunakan pada data dari daerah lain di Afrika oleh warisan cendikiawan di benua Afrika dengan gratis (Khalaf N, Insoll T.(2019)) Selain menghadirkan pembahasan artikel terkait penulis terbanyak, pembahasan kepada negara penyumbang kepenulisan terbanyak terkait arkeologi Islam, karena sejatinya suatu negara dikatakan maju apabila penelitiannya juga aktif dan terbaik. Negara yang dimaksud adalah united kigdom. ...
... Various sources of high-resolution visible and multispectral satellite and aerial imagery were obtained and used to try to identify archaeological and environmental features relevant to our investigation, which might be targeted for field survey. Although archaeological survey using remote sensing imagery is common in many parts of the world, its use in sub-Saharan Africa remains rare (Khalaf & Insoll, 2019). Our preliminary remote sensing survey demonstrated a number of challenges that contribute to this continuing situation, which are described below. ...
... By employing tools capable of recording the microtopography beneath foliage in a way that visible photography cannot, this methodology can be used to identify anomalous landforms and features related to human activity, such as house platforms, walls, and sunken or cut features like pits, ditches and quarries. Multispectral datasets are increasingly employed to identify archaeological sites and to build predictive models of site locations based on topographic and environmental contexts (Khalaf & Insoll, 2019;Reid, 2016Reid, , 2020Thabeng et al., 2020). Several of these have involved the use of high-resolution imagery to flag core settlement areas and related hinterlands based on the environmental impact of cultivation and activity on vegetative health. ...
... The application of remote sensing for framing systematic ground surveys has been transformative, as seen, for example, in investigations of land use and settlement patterns in the northern Ethiopian highlands (Harrower et al., 2020). Medium and lowresolution imagery has also been used to characterise environmental impact areas related to pastoralist activity (de Mûelenaere et al., 2014;Nyssen et al., 2010;Zerboni et al., 2021), and satellite imagery can also be used as a tool for monitoring sites rather than a primary tool for site detection (Khalaf & Insoll, 2019). ...
Spatial analysis is paramount for understanding, monitoring, and conserving ancient settlements and cultural landscapes. Advancing remote sensing and prospection techniques are expanding the methodological frame of archaeological settlement analysis by enabling remote, landscape‐scale approaches to mapping and investigation. Whilst particularly effective in arid lands and areas with sparse or open ground cover, such as vegetation and buildings, these approaches remain peripheral in tropical environments because of technical and contextual challenges. In tropical Eastern Africa, for example, scales, resolution and visibility are often compromised by thick vegetation cover, inadequate access to, if not lack of, imagery resources and technologies, and the availability of comparative archaeological data for interpretation. This paper presents the initial results of spatial analysis, using historic landscape characterisation, remote sensing, published and legacy data, and a pilot ground survey to examine the earliest settlement of Zanzibar, Unguja Ukuu. Comparing multiple strands of evidence in a Geographic Information System (GIS), we use each as a test on the others to draw out the strengths and weaknesses of each technique in the context of tropical and coastal Eastern Africa. Drone photogrammetry, geophysical prospection, and ground survey were compared with legacy remote sensing resources and the results of a coring survey conducted across the site during the 1990s into a GIS platform to produce multi‐phase hypothetical maps of the archaeological site in the context of its potential resource landscape. These were then tested against the results of recent excavations. The discussion highlights the challenges and potential of combining these techniques in the context of Eastern Africa and provides some suggested methods for doing so. We show that remote sensing techniques give an insight into current landscapes but are less useful in understanding or modelling how sites would have fitted into their surroundings in the past, when conditions were potentially very different.
... GEE (not to be confused with the Google Earth application that has well-established applications in the Cultural Heritage field: Luo et al., (2018)) is a recent online resource for large-scale cloud processing of geospatial data. It has been already experimented for archaeological purposes (Agapiou, 2017;Firpi, 2016), such as the identification of archaeological features in Jordan (Liss et al., 2017); the evaluation of urban sprawl over the area of the Amathus site in Cyprus (Agapiou, 2021) and the city of Matera in Italy (Danese et al., 2021); the assessment of Ethiopian archaeological heritage (Khalaf & Insoll, 2019); the detection of the looting activities on the archaeological site of Apamea in Syria (Agapiou, 2020); the assessment of risks for archaeological sites in Libya and Egypt (Rayne et al., 2020); the reconstruction of palaeolandscape and buried Bronze Age features in the Po Plain in Italy ; the estimation of the environmental risks coming from fires and floods on the archaeological site of Metaponto, Italy (Fattore et al., 2021); the hidden parts of the via Appia in Italy (Lasaponara et al., 2022); and the palaeolandscape in proximity of archaeological features in Egypt (Elfadaly et al., 2022). Bonacossi et al., 2018). ...
This paper presents the results of an archaeological survey carried out in the Navkur Plain, Iraqi Kurdistan, as part of the ‘Asingeran Archaeological Project’. The survey was prepared using remote sensing products accessed via Google Earth Engineⓒ, a large‐scale cloud computing service freely available to the scientific community that allows processing remote sensing big data. Outputs generated with a multitemporal approach are particularly successful for archaeological research, because it is possible to maximize the visibility of archaeological sites, improving their detection. Multispectral imagery from Landsat 5, Landsat 7 and Sentinel‐2 collections were used and processed, testing their utility for finding unknown ancient settlements in the densely studied area of Northern Mesopotamia. Seventeen new sites were discovered in an already surveyed area of limited size (<100 km2), showing the potentialities of this method. The advantages of cloud computing for Near Eastern Archaeology and the results of the survey are also presented and discussed.
