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(A) Free flight chamber in which the insect flies toward a skylight cue and with a controlled and measurable downward laminar draft resulting in the subject flying in a horizontal circle within the chamber (Kennedy and Booth 1963, Blackmer and Phelan 1991). (B) Free-flight arena that projects realistic landscapes and monitors insect flight with video-tracking software (Stowers et al. 2017). All images used with permission.
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Dispersal is a key component in the population ecology and dynamics of insects and remains one of the most difficult and intractable ecological processes to study in the field. As a consequence, many researchers have looked to laboratory methods for investigating the myriad factors that govern and impact an insect’s ability to move within its envir...
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... using laboratory-based systems to study and understand insect flight behavior, flight performance, and the physiology and mechanics of flight for many decades. Two fundamental approaches have been used. In one approach, the insect is allowed to fly freely within some sort of confined space where various observations and measurements can be made (Fig. 2). An example of such an approach is the vertical flight chamber ( Kennedy and Booth 1963, David and Hardie 1988, Blackmer and Phelan 1991, Blackmer et al. 2004). Here, the flying insect circles upward toward a light cue (like a moth to a porch light) and an adjustable, downward laminar flow of air is used to counterbalance the lift ...
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... using laboratory-based systems to study and understand insect flight behavior, flight performance, and the physiology and mechanics of flight for many decades. Two fundamental approaches have been used. In one approach, the insect is allowed to fly freely within some sort of confined space where various observations and measurements can be made (Fig. 2). An example of such an approach is the vertical flight chamber ( Kennedy and Booth 1963, David and Hardie 1988, Blackmer and Phelan 1991, Blackmer et al. 2004). Here, the flying insect circles upward toward a light cue (like a moth to a porch light) and an adjustable, downward laminar flow of air is used to counterbalance the lift ...
Citations
... These changes cannot be observed using a measurement method such as flight mills. In previous studies, insect flight speed has often been measured using flight mills or tethering with a string [22][23][24][25]. Recently, a system for measuring the 1D flight speed of insects by combining the Scheimpflug principle and LiDAR was proposed [26]. ...
Pest control is crucial in crop production; however, the use of chemical pesticides, the primary method of pest control, poses environmental issues and leads to insecticide resistance in pests. To overcome these issues, laser zapping has been studied as a clean pest control technology against the nocturnal cotton leafworm, Spodoptera litura, which has high fecundity and causes severe damage to various crops. For better sighting during laser zapping, it is important to measure the coordinates and speed of moths under low-light conditions. To achieve this, we developed an automatic detection pipeline based on point cloud time series data from stereoscopic images. We obtained 3D point cloud data from disparity images recorded under infrared and low-light conditions. To identify S. litura, we removed noise from the data using multiple filters and a support vector machine. We then computed the size of the outline box and directional angle of the 3D point cloud time series to determine the noisy point clouds. We visually inspected the flight trajectories and found that the size of the outline box and the movement direction were good indicators of noisy data. After removing noisy data, we obtained 68 flight trajectories, and the average flight speed of free-flying S. litura was 1.81 m/s.
... This is an important distinction for several reasons. First, since the organism is fixed to the flight mill, it does not need to generate the lift required to remain airborne (Ribak et al., 2017;Naranjo, 2019). Second, forcing the insects to fly in a circular path can change their flapping kinematics, as they would naturally prefer to fly with a more linear directionality, and thus may flap asymmetrically and exert additional energy to try and veer off the circular path set by the mill (Ribak et al., 2017;Naranjo, 2019). ...
... First, since the organism is fixed to the flight mill, it does not need to generate the lift required to remain airborne (Ribak et al., 2017;Naranjo, 2019). Second, forcing the insects to fly in a circular path can change their flapping kinematics, as they would naturally prefer to fly with a more linear directionality, and thus may flap asymmetrically and exert additional energy to try and veer off the circular path set by the mill (Ribak et al., 2017;Naranjo, 2019). Finally, while most modern flight mills, including those used in this study, are designed to minimize friction, they are not entirely frictionless. ...
Long-distance flight is crucial for the survival of migratory insects, and disruptions to their flight capacity can have significant consequences for conservation. In this study, we examined how a widely used insecticide, clothianidin (class: neonicotinoid), impacted the flight performance of two species of migratory butterflies, monarchs (Danaus plexippus) and painted ladies (Vanessa cardui). To do this, we quantified the free-flight energetics and tethered-flight velocity and distance of the two species using flow-through respirometry and flight mill assays. Our findings show differential effects of the pesticide on the two species. For painted ladies, we found that clothianidin exposure reduced average free-flight metabolic rates, but did not affect either average velocity or total distance during tethered flight. Other studies have linked low flight metabolic rates with reduced dispersal capacity, indicating that clothianidin exposure may hinder painted lady flight performance in the wild. Conversely, for monarchs, we saw no significant effect of clothianidin exposure on average free-flight metabolic rates but did observe increases in the average velocity, and for large individuals, total distance achieved by clothianidin-exposed monarchs in tethered flight. This suggests a potential stimulatory response of monarchs to low-dose exposures to clothianidin. These findings indicate that clothianidin exposure has the potential to influence the flight performance of butterflies, but that not all species are impacted in the same way. This highlights the need to be thoughtful when selecting performance assays, as different assays can evaluate fundamentally distinct aspects of physiology, and as such may yield divergent results.
... The distinction between ''sustained'' versus ''trivial'' fliers has been recognized in at least one other insect migrant (western corn rootworm); 44 variation in flight intensity among migrants has been reported in a number of species (reviewed in a study by Naranjo). 45 We performed an unbiased clustering analysis across all tested individuals (including both sunny and cloudy conditions) in order to identify sustained fliers in an unbiased manner (Figures 3C-3E and S1D-S1F). In this analysis, considering only individuals flow in sunny conditions, 18 of 33 (54.5%) fall migrants are identified as ''sustained'' fliers, which is significantly greater than the 4 of 22 (18.2%) ...
Eastern North American migratory monarch butterflies exhibit migratory behavioral states in fall and spring characterized by sun-dependent oriented flight. However, it is unclear how monarchs transition between these behavioral states at their overwintering site. Using a modified Mouritsen-Frost flight simulator, we confirm individual directionality and compass-based orientation (leading to group orientation) in fall migrants, and also uncover sustained flight propensity and direction-based flight reinforcement as distinctly migratory behavioral traits. By testing monarchs at their Mexican overwintering sites, we show that overwintering monarchs show reduced propensity for sustained flight and lose individual directionality, leading to the loss of group-level orientation. Overwintering fliers orient axially in a time-of-day dependent manner, which may indicate local versus long-distance directional heading. These results support a model of migratory flight behavior in which modular, state-dependent switches for flight propensity and orientation control are highly dynamic and are controlled in season- and location-dependent manners.
... Such wasps could foreseeably disperse after attacking local hosts. A braconid wasp fed sugar could fly longer in laboratory flight assays [48] as do many insects (reviewed by [49]). Given that the scale of habitat manipulation studies depends on the resources and land available, the experimental scale of past studies may not have been large enough to detect differences. ...
When flowers, plants bearing extrafloral nectaries, or sugar
sprays are added to agroecosystems, parasitoids are expected
to feed, thereby improving biological control. This paper
reviews studies where sugar-feeding of field-collected
parasitoids were monitored via biochemical assays. When
examined, trends in parasitoid abundance, energetic reserves,
longevity, and per capita fecundity are also followed. Starved
parasitoids readily feed on sugar sources in the field, and more
individuals collected near sugar sources are categorized as
‘fed’ when sugar is otherwise limited in the agroecosystem.
When sugar is not limited (i.e. honeydew prevalent), trends are
not as clear. Some studies show improved fecundity and
parasitism, while other studies show inconsistent trends
between parasitoid feeding, abundance, longevity, and
parasitism, with some responses improved but not others.
Future research could address the dispersal or resting behavior
of wasps following feeding since it can influence eventual
biological control, and consider whether field sampling
methods might over-/underestimate feeding.
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Free access until March 6, 2024, go to link -->
https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1iRQm7tYJFnQhI
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Invitation by Pablo Urbaneja, Cesar Rodriguez-Saona, Alejandro Tena for a special issue on “Research Advances on Plant-Derived Food Sources in Biological Control"
... Rotary flight mills (RFMs) were developed based on previous models [41,42]. Briefly, RFMs use a magnetic levitation mechanism between Teflon bearings that reduces friction as the flying insect spins around the mill [43]. A unipolar magnetic Hall-effect magnetic sensor at the top of the main RFM Teflon rod detects the change in magnetic polarity from passage of a small magnet attached to the base of the rotating bearing when the mill is in motion. ...
The fall armyworm (JE Smith) (Spodoptera frugiperda) is a polyphagous pest targeted by selected Cry and Vip3A insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that are produced in transgenic Bt corn and cotton. Available evidence suggests that sublethal larval exposure to Cry1Ac increases flight activity in adult Spodoptera spp. However, it is not known whether this effect is also observed in survivors from generally lethal exposure to Cry1Ac. Moreover, while multiple cases of field-evolved resistance to Bt proteins have been described in the native range of S. frugiperda, the effect of resistance on flight behavior has not been examined. Long-distance migratory flight capacity of S. frugiperda is of concern given its ongoing global spread and the possibility that migrants may be carrying resistance alleles against pesticides and Bt crops. In this study, we used rotational flight mills to test the effects of generally lethal exposure to Cry1Ac in susceptible and sublethal exposure in Cry1F-resistant S. frugiperda strains. The results detected altered pupal weight after larval feeding on diet containing Cry proteins, which only translated in significantly increased tendency for longer flights in female moths from the susceptible strain. This information has relevant implications when considering current models and assumptions for resistance management of Bt crops.
... Introduced in the early 1950s, the flight mill stands out as a key tool in this exploration. At its core is a rotating arm that allows tethered insects to maintain a steady, circular flight (Naranjo 2019). Over time, enhancements to this design have ensured minimal interference, aiming for natural insect locomotion. ...
... Even so, the adoption of the flight mill by research groups has faced hurdles, primarily through the prohibitive costs associated with the proprietary software required for data analysis (Attisano et al. 2015;Naranjo 2019). This has posed a significant barrier for many researchers, especially those on limited budgets. ...
In recent years, the study of insect flight behavior has gained prominence, offering insights into their dispersal strategies, habitat preferences, and potential migration patterns. Recognizing the need for a precise tool to capture insect flight, we developed an Arduino‐integrated flight mill that offers researchers affordability, accuracy, and adaptability. Our flight mill was rigorously tested on two insect species, Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis and Polygonia c‐aureum , and proved effective in recording their unique flight patterns. Key to the precision of our flight mill is the integration of advanced materials, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, which reduces friction, and the incorporation of magnetic sensing for meticulous data capture. These design choices ensure that the natural flight speed of the insect is replicated with minimal disturbance. Additionally, the implementation of a dedicated R script for data analysis provides researchers with a comprehensive platform, allowing them to delve deeply into various metrics, visualize patterns, and make informed conclusions. However, our flight mill is not without challenges. Mastery of the Arduino platform and R programming environment is essential for optimal use, which could pose barriers for those unfamiliar with these platforms. Moreover, although carefully designed, the mounting mechanism may still influence the natural behavior of the insect. Despite these challenges, the potential applications of our flight mill are myriad. From basic entomological research to practical applications in pest management and conservation, its versatility is evident. The adaptability of the tool also makes it an excellent resource in educational settings, offering students hands‐on experience in studying insect behavior.
... These changes cannot be observed using a measurement method such as ight mills. In previous studies, insect ight speed has often been measured by ight mills or tethering with a string (Noda and Kamano 1988;Ribak et al. 2017;Naranjo 2019). Recently, a system for measuring 1D ight speed of insects combining the Scheimp ug principle and lidar was proposed (Li et al. 2020). ...
Pest management is essential in crop production; however, frequent application of chemical pesticides that are used as a main tool for pest control causes environmental issues and insecticide resistance in pests. To overcome these issues, laser zapping has been used to control insects such as cockroaches and mosquitoes. In Japan, laser zapping has been studied to physically control cotton leafworm, Spodoptera litura , which is nocturnal, has a high fecundity and some insecticide-resistant populations, and severely damages to a variety of crops. To regulate behaviors of adult S. litura by laser zapping, its flight trajectory including flight speed must be identified and then predicted precisely under night conditions. Therefore, we aim to establish the automatic detection pipeline for flight trajectory based on point-cloud time series considering the factors reflecting noise data. In this study, the 3D point cloud data were obtained from the recorded disparity images under infrared lights in a low-lux condition. We removed the noise using multiple filters calculating background noise, the size of point cloud, the length of point-cloud time series, and linear SVM (support vector machine) for classifying S. litura and noise. To eliminate noisy flight trajectory data, we computed the voxel volume and directional angle of the 3D point-cloud time series, and then visually inspected and removed the noise data. Obtained 68 flight trajectories in total showed that mean flight speed of free-flying S. litura was 1.81 m/s and directional angle different between true and noise flight trajectories can be a good indicator for noise detection.
... Insects are supported by the tether in flight mill assays and do not expend energy for self-support during flight, and as a result, flight endurance might be overestimated (Minter et al., 2018;Williams & Robertson, 2008). In addition, frictional forces caused during tethered flight compared with free flight may result in an underestimation of endurance (Jactel & Gaillard, 1992;Naranjo, 2019;Ribak et al., 2017). ...
The study of insect flight is important for conservation and sustainability efforts, as predicting insect dispersal can aid management programmes in tackling economic and ecological harm from, for example, invasive species. Flight mills are invaluable tools for measuring the factors of insect flight under laboratory conditions, as they lower several technical and financial barriers to conduct experiments. It is especially difficult, however, to make assumptions about the energetic cost of tethered flights conducted using different tethers, or even on different flight mills, due to the mechanical variability of the bearing friction and air resistance of the rotating assembly. This additional uncertainty necessitates a larger number of replicates for any given standard of statistical confidence. By characterising flight mill friction, this uncertainty can both be reduced in magnitude and assigned a specific, well‐defined numerical value. We present a simple methodology to characterise this friction through dynamic calibration of the flight mill, at a high statistical confidence. This study uses videography of a flight mill undergoing free velocity decay due to friction, using an in‐house developed software to extract angular velocity from video data. However, the technique is readily adaptable to other measurement techniques. Using the velocity, alongside the mass moment of inertia of the flight mill, allows us to determine the rotational friction coefficient. This friction coefficient provides precise measurements of thrust production, and therefore the energy expenditure of flight, by the tethered insect.
... Previous studies have shown that insect behaviors can be triggered by artificial external stimuli [10], and based on this, a large number of systems have been extensively used to explore many VMCs of insects [11][12][13][14]. Thus, flight channels equipped with high-speed cameras are widely used. ...
Vision plays a crucial role in the ability of compound-eyed insects to perceive the characteristics of their surroundings. Compound-eyed insects (such as the honeybee) can change the optical flow input of the visual system by autonomously controlling their behavior, and this is referred to as visual–motor coordination (VMC). To analyze an insect’s VMC mechanism in dynamic scenes, we developed a platform for studying insects that actively shape the optic flow of visual stimuli by adapting their flight behavior. Image-processing technology was applied to detect the posture and direction of insects’ movement, and automatic control technology provided dynamic scene stimulation and automatic acquisition of perceptual insect behavior. In addition, a virtual mapping technique was used to reconstruct the visual cues of insects for VMC analysis in a dynamic obstacle scene. A simulation experiment at different target speeds of 1–12 m/s was performed to verify the applicability and accuracy of the platform. Our findings showed that the maximum detection speed was 8 m/s, and triggers were 95% accurate. The outdoor experiments showed that flight speed in the longitudinal axis of honeybees was more stable when facing dynamic barriers than static barriers after analyzing the change in geometric optic flow. Finally, several experiments showed that the platform can automatically and efficiently monitor honeybees’ perception behavior, and can be applied to study most insects and their VMC.
... This work suggested that only starvation impacted the number of flight bouts and velocity, suggesting that this species has a robust dispersal capacity which may contribute to its success as an invasive species. Multiple parameters can impact flight mill results, such as handling of insects, lack of natural stimuli, increased weight load, and reduced energy expenditure [250,251]; thus, caution needs to be taken when interpreting flight mill data. For example, distances flown by laboratory-reared stink bugs in a study by Aita et al. [252] were lower than the distances flown by stink bugs collected from the field [248,249]. ...
Knowledge of the biology of a pest is essential for building sustainable management programmes. Pentatomidae have a hemimetabolous life cycle with egg, nymphal, and adult life stages, which differ in morphological, ecological, and behavioural traits. Some of these traits, such as mating behaviour, pheromones (alarm and aggregation pheromones) and the acquisition of gut symbionts can be targeted for pest management strategies. Here, we review the available literature on these life history traits of the Pentatomidae with potential for use in management programmes. Pheromone-mediated aggregation and the disruption of symbiont acquisition are two important targets for Pentatomidae control. Other traits such as the use of alarm pheromones for enhancing natural enemies and substrate-borne vibration for mating disruption deserve further consideration. Colour vision and flight ability are still poorly studied, despite their potential importance for stink bug management.
