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(A) Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra of samples: (a) MNP; (b) AMNP; (c) EAMNP; (d) GEAMNP and (e) BCL-GEAMNP. (B) FT-IR spectra of samples: (a) MNP; (e) BCL-GEAMNP and (f) BCL powder. (C) The hysteresis loops of MNP, AMNP, EAMNP, GEAMNP, and BCL-GEAMNP. (D) X Ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of samples: (a) MNP; (b) AMNP; (c) EAMNP; (d) GEAMNP and (e) BCLGEAMNP.
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Biodiesel production using immobilized lipase as a biocatalyst is a promising process. The performance of immobilized lipase is mainly determined by supporting materials and immobilization method. To avoid the shortcomings of adsorption and covalent bonding methods, in this study, we developed a novel heterofunctional carrier of being strengthened...
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... FT-IR spectra of MNP, AMNP, EAMNP, GEAMNP, and BCL-GEAMNP are shown in Fig. 4Aa-e. The strong absorption band around 586 and 634 cm −1 is ascribed to the Fe-O bond of Fe 3 O 4 36,37 ( Fig. 4Aa-e). The C-H stretching vibrations of the grafted organic molecules (APTES, EPTAC, glutaraldehyde, and lipase) are observed at 2865 and 2925 cm −1 ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 38 . The absorption band at 900-1150 cm −1 is attributed to the ...
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... FT-IR spectra of MNP, AMNP, EAMNP, GEAMNP, and BCL-GEAMNP are shown in Fig. 4Aa-e. The strong absorption band around 586 and 634 cm −1 is ascribed to the Fe-O bond of Fe 3 O 4 36,37 ( Fig. 4Aa-e). The C-H stretching vibrations of the grafted organic molecules (APTES, EPTAC, glutaraldehyde, and lipase) are observed at 2865 and 2925 cm −1 ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 38 . The absorption band at 900-1150 cm −1 is attributed to the stretching vibra- tion of the Si-O bond ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 39 . Figure 4Ba,e,f represent the absorption bands of MNP, ...
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... FT-IR spectra of MNP, AMNP, EAMNP, GEAMNP, and BCL-GEAMNP are shown in Fig. 4Aa-e. The strong absorption band around 586 and 634 cm −1 is ascribed to the Fe-O bond of Fe 3 O 4 36,37 ( Fig. 4Aa-e). The C-H stretching vibrations of the grafted organic molecules (APTES, EPTAC, glutaraldehyde, and lipase) are observed at 2865 and 2925 cm −1 ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 38 . The absorption band at 900-1150 cm −1 is attributed to the stretching vibra- tion of the Si-O bond ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 39 . Figure 4Ba,e,f represent the absorption bands of MNP, BCL-GEAMNP and BCL powder, respectively. Absorption bands at peak 1646 cm −1 and 1544 cm −1 are characteristics of amide (-CO-NH-) I and II bonds for lipase ( ...
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... around 586 and 634 cm −1 is ascribed to the Fe-O bond of Fe 3 O 4 36,37 ( Fig. 4Aa-e). The C-H stretching vibrations of the grafted organic molecules (APTES, EPTAC, glutaraldehyde, and lipase) are observed at 2865 and 2925 cm −1 ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 38 . The absorption band at 900-1150 cm −1 is attributed to the stretching vibra- tion of the Si-O bond ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 39 . Figure 4Ba,e,f represent the absorption bands of MNP, BCL-GEAMNP and BCL powder, respectively. Absorption bands at peak 1646 cm −1 and 1544 cm −1 are characteristics of amide (-CO-NH-) I and II bonds for lipase ( Fig. 4Ae and Be) 40 . Bands at 1646 cm −1 can also be attributed to stretch- ing vibration for imine group. However, ...
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... absorption band at 900-1150 cm −1 is attributed to the stretching vibra- tion of the Si-O bond ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 39 . Figure 4Ba,e,f represent the absorption bands of MNP, BCL-GEAMNP and BCL powder, respectively. Absorption bands at peak 1646 cm −1 and 1544 cm −1 are characteristics of amide (-CO-NH-) I and II bonds for lipase ( Fig. 4Ae and Be) 40 . ...
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... Fig. 4Ab-e) 38 . The absorption band at 900-1150 cm −1 is attributed to the stretching vibra- tion of the Si-O bond ( Fig. 4Ab-e) 39 . Figure 4Ba,e,f represent the absorption bands of MNP, BCL-GEAMNP and BCL powder, respectively. Absorption bands at peak 1646 cm −1 and 1544 cm −1 are characteristics of amide (-CO-NH-) I and II bonds for lipase ( Fig. 4Ae and Be) 40 . Bands at 1646 cm −1 can also be attributed to stretch- ing vibration for imine group. However, there are also many interference peaks of organic compounds on the ...
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... shown in Fig. 4C, VSM measurements have proved that the saturation magnetization (MS) values of MNP, AMNP, EAMNP, GEAMNP and BCL-GEAMNP are 99 emu/g, 69 emu/g, 77 emu/g, 48 emu/g and 55 emu/g, respectively. The magnetization curves exhibit no hysteresis for all of the samples, indicating their superparamag- netic character. Thus, the samples can be ...
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... XRD patterns of MNP, AMNP, EAMNP (magnetic nanoparticles modified with APTES and EPTAC), GEAMNP, and BCL-GEAMNP are shown in Fig. 4Da 4 with a face-centered cubic phase. The characteristic peaks did not change after modification with APTES, EPTAC, glutaraldehyde or lipase, which indicates that modification and immo- bilization do not affect the trans-cubic-spinel structure of Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles 41,42 . Therefore, the average size of the bare Fe 3 O 4 ...
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... According to Huang et al. the pH stability of immobilized beta-glucosidase was achieved at pH 4.0-8.0 in a 20 mM Na 2 HPO 4 -C 6 H 8 O 7 buffer. Research by [27] demonstrated that immobilized lipase maintains pH stability within the range of 6.0-8.0. Research by [26] findings indicated that the pH stability of immobilized laccase was attained at pH 5.0-7.0. ...
Cellulase from Aspergillus niger ICP2 was successfully immobilized on coffee pulp activated carbon using adsorption. Carbon was derived from coffee pulp via controlled carbonization at 200 °C for 2 hours, followed by activation with 3M ZnCl 2 for 150 minutes. Reusability analysis exhibited over 50% relative activity retention after four cycles. The immobilized cellulase demonstrated stability at pH 4.0-6.0, retaining over 80% relative activity after 4 hours at 37℃. This approach proves economical for enhancing cellulase stability, activity, and reusability.
... Alternativas na obtenção de biodiesel, as lipases são enzimas lipolíticas utilizadas na substituição de uma variedade de catalisadores químicos devido às atividades quimiobiológicas, especificidade de substrato, especificidade de grupo funcional, enantiosseletividade, dentre outras características(Quayson et al., 2020).A obtenção de lipases por meio de rotas microbianas é baseada principalmente pelo desenvolvimento de biorrefinarias que apresentam estruturas integradas quanto ao tratamento Clostridium, Klebsiella e Enterobacter, demonstrou vantagens quanto a obtenção de metabólitos de múltiplas funcionalidades e aplicações, sendo um exemplo de avanço significativo quanto a obtenção de produtos químicos de origem microbiana voltados para a área de produção de biodiesel a partir de substratos variados(Almeida, 2011). Dos diferentes tipos de microrganismos capazes de produzir enzimas com atividades catalíticas para a produção de biodiesel, destacam-se algumas espécies como, por exemplo, as espécies de leveduras Candida antarctica e Candida rugosa, as espécie de bactérias Cryptococcus sp., Pseudomonas sp. e Bacillus sp., e fungos filamentosos como as espéciesTrichosporon asahii e Yarrowia lipolytica(Li et al., 2017).Fungos filamentosos são microrganismos capazes de secretar uma diversidade de enzimas tais como as lipases, que são utilizadas em larga escala no setor de produção de biocombustíveis. Neste grupo de fungos as espécies Trichoderma reesei e Aspergillus niger são as mais relatadas na literatura, uma vez que a produção de enzimas é voltada para a hidrólise de biomassa lignocelulósica. ...
... Neste grupo de fungos as espécies Trichoderma reesei e Aspergillus niger são as mais relatadas na literatura, uma vez que a produção de enzimas é voltada para a hidrólise de biomassa lignocelulósica. já espécies de fungos filamentosos como Penicillium echinulatum foram relatadas para produzir sistemas enzimáticos com desempenho superior do que T. reesei e A. niger(Li et al., 2017). lanuginosus para obtenção de biodiesel. ...
Biodiesel is composed of alkyl esters of fatty acids, being a potential substitute for fossil fuels due to its characteristics of sustainability, respect for the environment and biodegradability. In view of the global shortage of fossil fuels, increases in the price of crude oil and environmental concerns, the search for alternatives for obtaining biodiesel has become more evident. To obtain biodiesel on an industrial scale, generally chemical catalysts are used, which are efficient, but require the use of very pure reagents and extreme processing conditions, so the use of microbial lipases is a more advantageous alternative. In view of this, this review describes the production of biodiesel including microbial species already evaluated in obtaining biodiesel combined with oil raw materials, where it was possible to observe the possibility of finding excellent microbial sources of lipase and combining them with alternative oil raw materials such as waste, contributing to the development of more profitable and environmentally beneficial processes.
... -FOOD SAFETY AND HEALTH P. cepacia (Kumar et al., 2020), and Rhizomucor miehei (Adnan et al., 2018), have been used to immobilize lipase irreversibly through entrapment, cross-linkage, and covalent bonding for biodiesel production. Various substrates, including oleic acid (Fauzi et al., 2014), macaw palm (Rade et al., 2020), low-quality fish oil (Marín-Suárez et al., 2019), Hevea brasiliensis (Arumugam & Ponnusami, 2019), soybean oil (Jambulingam et al., 2019;Lee et al., 2019;Li, Fan, et al., 2017), castor oil (Kumar et al., 2020), sunflower oil (Dumri & Hung Anh, 2014), algae oil , and waste cooking oil (Ismail et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2019;Mehrasbi et al., 2017), have been utilized with microbial strains for biodiesel synthesis. investigated their potential in biodiesel production (Kheirkhah et al., 2022 (Zhou et al., 2023). ...
Immobilized lipase is a powerful biocatalytic system with numerous applications in industries, particularly in the energy, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Reusability, simple recovery, and high chemical and thermal stability make it an attractive alternative to traditional chemical catalysts in industrial applications. Novel methods and support materials for immobilizing lipases have recently attracted much attention. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a promising class of materials for enzyme immobilization carriers due to their appealing features, including a high specific surface area, high specific porosity, a stable framework structure, and a wide variety of functional sites. Due to the protection provided to enzymes by MOFs, several reported MOFs-lipase composites display exceptional catalytic characteristics relative to free lipases. This includes increased enzyme efficiency , stability, selectivity, and recyclability. Herein, we summarize an updated review of the most recent advances in MOFs immobilizing lipases. This review sheds light on the numerous aspects of lipase-MOF immobilization, with special emphasis on different techniques of designing lipase-MOF platforms and the advantages of lipase-MOF composites. Subsequently, molecular simulation approaches in lipase-MOF immobilization are briefly introduced. Moreover, practical applications of MOFs-lipase composites have been outlined. Finally, potential limitations and future directions for MOFs-lipase immobilization research are highlighted. Prasanna J. Patil and Xiaoxiao Dong contributed equally to this work. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
... Moreover, because of the coupling of MIL-53(Al) adsorption and laccase degradation, the contaminant named (5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) phenol can be rapidly removed by nearly 99.24% in 2 h. In addition, approximately 60% of its initial activity Table 2 Carrier-based immobilization of laccase Immobilization pathway Advantages Disadvantages Adsorption Mild; easy operation; greatly retains the catalytic activity of the enzyme [79] Weak force and poor stability [80]; easily blocks the internal channel of the carrier [79] Encapsulation Avoids enzyme leakage [81]; high flexibility, allowing adjustment of solubility, permeability, and surface area, with high repeatability; small structural changes [82] Low catalytic efficiency [78]; the size and shape of the carrier are strictly controlled [81] Covalent binding Ensures the rigid structure of the enzyme; can improve the stability and reusability of the enzyme [83] Loci are susceptible to activators [84]; severe loss of enzymatic activity [80] was maintained after reuse 8 times, which provided a potential strategy for micropollutant degradation in wastewater. Tocco et al. ...
... Moreover, because of the coupling of MIL-53(Al) adsorption and laccase degradation, the contaminant named (5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) phenol can be rapidly removed by nearly 99.24% in 2 h. In addition, approximately 60% of its initial activity Table 2 Carrier-based immobilization of laccase Immobilization pathway Advantages Disadvantages Adsorption Mild; easy operation; greatly retains the catalytic activity of the enzyme [79] Weak force and poor stability [80]; easily blocks the internal channel of the carrier [79] Encapsulation Avoids enzyme leakage [81]; high flexibility, allowing adjustment of solubility, permeability, and surface area, with high repeatability; small structural changes [82] Low catalytic efficiency [78]; the size and shape of the carrier are strictly controlled [81] Covalent binding Ensures the rigid structure of the enzyme; can improve the stability and reusability of the enzyme [83] Loci are susceptible to activators [84]; severe loss of enzymatic activity [80] was maintained after reuse 8 times, which provided a potential strategy for micropollutant degradation in wastewater. Tocco et al. ...
Laccase is a multicopper oxidoreductase enzyme that can oxidize organics such as phenolic compounds. Laccases appear to be unstable at room temperature, and their conformation often changes in a strongly acidic or alkaline environment, making them less effective. Therefore, rationally linking enzymes with supports can effectively improve the stability and reusability of native enzymes and add important industrial value. However, in the process of immobilization, many factors may lead to a decrease in enzymatic activity. Therefore, the selection of a suitable support can ensure the activity and economic utilization of immobilized catalysts. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous and simple hybrid support materials. Moreover, the characteristics of the metal ion ligand of MOFs can enable a potential synergistic effect with the metal ions of the active center of metalloenzymes, enhancing the catalytic activity of such enzymes. Therefore, in addition to summarizing the biological characteristics and enzymatic properties of laccase, this article reviews laccase immobilization using MOF supports, as well as the application prospects of immobilized laccase in many fields.
Graphical Abstract
... With regard to the subject of biofuels, chemical interaction with nanomaterials allows for more homogeneous combustion. At the same time, the use of nanomaterials to immobilise enzymes for biofuel production has become increasingly popular because it reduces enzyme costs [11,12]. Furthermore, nanomaterials can improve the thermal and mechanical properties of fuels, including heat capacity and mass diffusion [13]. ...
We are currently in a dynamic phase of civilisation, in which the technological progress that has drastically altered our lives is accompanied by other historical events that forcibly affect and will affect future choices [...]
... In the biofuel industry, lipases and cellulases are common enzymes [18]. Research on MNPs indicates that they have a crucial role in enzyme immobilization for biofuel synthesis [37][38][39]. After immobilizing enzymes to a support matrix covered with a specific nanomaterial, they may be reused, and this approach is suited for lignocellulosic biomass hydrolysis [40]. ...
Population growth, growing urbanization, and industrialization sectors have caused a worrisome rise in global waste generation. The sustainable production of bioenergy, including biohydrogen from different waste, is the more environmentally friendly approach that is an excellent response to global concerns such as rising energy needs, cost of fuel, and environmental pollution mitigation. Non-renewable fossil fuels emit greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change and global warming. In the future, biofuels such as bioethanol, biohydrogen, biodiesel, and bioethanol may be used to replace fossil fuels. Novel nanomaterials are a significant choice for maximizing and improving bioenergy and biofuel production rates. Nanotechnology can help build more effective catalysts for biofuel generation. Improving renewables to meet growing global energy demand is the main priority, notably in the most developed nations. Thus, it is necessary to improve bioenergy production from waste biomass using nanomaterials for various reasons, including sustainability, energy demand maintenance, and socio-economic concerns. Novel technologies' contributions to resource optimization and nanoparticle processes for energy conversion were addressed. Numerous biofuels and their artificial pathways are discussed, along with future solutions. This review describes nanomaterials as highly efficient photocatalysts used for bioenergy and biohydrogen production from waste toward a sustainable environment. Bioenergy production from waste is also discussed, along with its key parameters, benefits, and challenges.
Aberrations: NPs, Nanoparticles; NMs, Nanomaterials; CNTs, Carbon nanotubes; SWCNTs, Single-walled carbon nanotubes; MWCNTs, Multi-walled carbon nanotubes; FCC, Facilitated cubic; BCC-Body centered cubic; MON, Monoclinic; LMNPs, Lignin magnetic nanoparticles; CSL, Corn steep liquor.
... Previous studies have reported similar declines in activity recovery [29,30], indicating that the enzyme structure was not affected during the immobilization process. However, several studies have shown an increase in activity recovery [31]. Ibrahim et al. showed that compared to physical adsorption, covalent immobilization has higher immobilization efficiency and activity recovery, but the activity of immobilized enzymes was lower than that of free enzymes [32]. ...
In the present study, the non-blue laccase Melac13220 from Methylobacterium extorquens was immobilized using three methods to overcome problems related to the stability and reusability of the free enzyme: entrapment of the enzyme with sodium alginate, crosslinking of the enzyme with glutaraldehyde and chitosan-, and site-specific covalent immobilization of the enzyme on Fe3O4 nanoparticles by an aldehyde tag. The site-specific covalent immobilization method showed the highest immobilization efficiency and vitality recovery. The optimum temperature of Melac13220 was increased from 65 °C to 80 °C. Immobilized Melac13220 showed significant tolerance to some organic solvents and maintained approximately 80% activity after 10 cycles of use. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) indicated that the melting temperature of the enzyme was increased (from 57 °C to 79 °C). Immobilization of Melac13220 also led to improvement in dye decolorization such that Congo Red was completely decolorized within 10 h. The immobilized enzyme can be easily prepared without purification, demonstrating the advantages of using the aldehyde tag strategy and providing a reference for the practical application of different immobilized laccase methods in the industrial field.
... The chemical interaction with the nanomaterials facilitates enhanced combustion as well as smooth burning [101]. Using nanomaterials to immobilize enzymes for biofuel production has become increasingly popular because it reduces enzyme costs [102,103]. Furthermore, nanomaterials can also improve the thermal and mechanical properties of fuels, including heat capacity and mass diffusion. [3,11,104]. ...
Specifically, human activities, such as those in industry and transportation, have resulted in an increase in the demand for fossil fuels, resulting in severe environmental problems. Throughout this article, we discuss the potential and challenges associated with the production of biofuels from a variety of feedstocks and advances in processing technologies utilizing a range of feedstocks. Based on the conclusion of the study, we conclude that bioenergy is a green alternative to be used for diverse energy needs, once the appropriate conversion processes are applied. The production of biofuels and their use in industries and transportation have significantly reduced the use of fossil fuels. The literature review concluded that producing biofuels from energy crops and microalgae was the most efficient and attractive method. The purpose of this review is to explain all aspects of biofuels and their sustainability criteria. With a particular focus on the role of nanotechnology in biofuel production, this article discusses the most recent advances in biofuel production. A number of emerging techniques have been investigated for improving process quality, including integrated techniques, less energy-intensive distillation strategies, and the use of microorganisms in engineering. A challenging aspect of biofuel production on a large scale remains; therefore, a novel technology must be developed in order to enhance biofuel production in order to meet the challenges and meet future energy needs.
... Beberapa kelompok bakteri tersebut telah dilaporkan memiliki aktivitas lipolitik yang cukup tinggi dan telah diaplikasikan pada berbagai proses biotransformasi. Lipase yang dihasilkan oleh Burkholderia cepacia memiliki ketahanan terhadap suhu tinggi dan toleran terhadap berbagai pelarut organik yang berperan penting dalam proses transesterifikasi untuk produksi biodiesel dan sintesis obat (Li et al. 2017;Sanchez et al. 2018). Selain itu, Yoo et al. (2011) melaporkan bahwa lipase yang dihasilkan Ralstonia mampu mengkatalisis secara enzimatik dalam produksi biodiesel dari minyak sawit dan minyak kedelai. ...
Lipolytic bacteria attract great attention to various biotechnology industries because of their enzymatic potential. This study aims to isolate and identify lipolytic bacteria from cashew nutshell waste using the 16S rRNA gene as a molecular marker. Lipolytic bacteria were isolated using serial dilutions and inoculated on lipolytic media. A total of 3 isolates of lipolytic bacteria were obtained from cashew nutshell waste based on screening in LA Rhodamine B. The partial sequence of 16S rRNA gene from LB15 amplified using a pair of primers 63F and 1387R having a size of 1238 bp, while BL6 and BK6 were 1283 bp, respectively. Based on genetic distance analysis and phylogenetic reconstruction, we proposed that LB15 be identified as Burkholderia sp. with 99.92% similarity. In addition, because the 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of BL6 was 99.87% with Paraburkholderia kururiensis strain 979, BL6 was classified as Paraburkholderia kururiensis. Then, isolate BK6 was identified as Ralstonia sp. with a similarity of 99.53%. The similarity value can be used as a reference in determining the identity of bacteria. A bacterium can be categorized as the same species if it has a similarity value of more than 99%.
... Lipase from Candida rugosa was coupled with glutaraldehyde and covalently immobilized onto Fe 3 O 4 @SiO 2 nano-particle dip-coated nanocomposite membrane with 3-aminopropyletriethoxysilane (APTS) modification; the decreased K m and V max of the immobilized enzyme represent the increasing of substrate affinity and decreasing of catalytic activity, respectively; the thermal, storage and operational stability of immobilized enzyme were enhanced [30]. To overcome the disadvantages of adsorption and covalent immobilizations, a novel heterofunctional carrier was developed by strengthening anion exchange and weakening covalent binding to prevent activity loss and enhance operational stability of the immobilized Burkholderia cepacia lipase on magnetic nanoparticles as core shells [31]. Given the mechanical strength, leakage prevention, and easy recycling, research on covalent immobilization of lipase for biodiesel production has been broadly reported and will continue to be a research hotspot in the future. ...
... Aggregated lipase was immobilized on the modified graphene oxide nanocomposites (maGO-CLEAs-lip) and broadened temperature activity range of about 40-60 • C in contrast to free enzyme; meanwhile, storage stability was enhanced that retained activity of around 75% after incubation for 30 days, as well as the improved biodiesel yield of the nano-biocatalyst was 3.0 folds higher than free enzyme [117]. Lipase from Burkholderia cepacia was immobilized on magnetic nano-particles that showed markedly enhanced operational stability, better reusability and higher biodiesel yield [31]. ...
In recent years, the development and deployment of nano-immobilized lipases, as robust biocatalysts, has appeared a promising alternative for biodiesel production. There is a significant hike in using nano-sized support matrices for enzyme-based biotransformation bioprocesses with ever-increasing scientific awareness and nano-technological advancement. Several nano-scale materials include magnetic and non-magnetic nano-particles, silica nano-particles, carbon nanotubes, graphene/graphene oxide, electrospun nanofibers, metal-organic frameworks, and other nanohybrid matrices are of supreme interest that can shield the catalytic attributes of enzymes after immobilization. Furthermore, nano-sized support matrices immobilized enzymes also offer numerous advantages that native enzymes fail to display on their own, such as high catalytic efficacy, high catalytic turnover, induced stability under harsh reaction conditions, high resistivity against reaction by-products (which otherwise can hinder/inhibit the pristine enzyme), low mass transfer limitation, and high yield under mild processing environment. Lipases are considered principal candidates (biocatalysts) for biodiesel production via transesterification processes, among several industrially relevant enzymes. The nano-immobilized lipases showed a broader working range under different pH and temperature conditions, a highly requisite challenge in indusial settings. Herein, we reviewed several perspectives of sustainable biodiesel production using nano-immobilized lipases. First, following a brief introduction, this review is spotlighting numerous existing and state-of-the-art strategies for lipase immobilization on nanomaterials. Second, the critical factors that characterize nano-biocatalysts are discussed to show the need for optimal reaction conditions to further sustainable transformation. Third, promising nano-carriers to develop lipase-based nanobiocatalyst are given with suitable examples. Fourth, some influential factors that improve the overall performance of nano-immobilized lipases are discussed in terms of the sustainability and processability of the entire production process. Lastly, the contemporary challenges and key considerations for sustained biodiesel production from waste resources are also given for future studies.
