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In this paper, by combining the geographic information systems GIS spatial analysis function and a hydrologic analysis and modeling tool with a column-based three-dimensional 3D slope stability analysis model, a new GIS grid-based 3D deterministic model has been developed for slope stability analysis. Assuming the initial slip as the lower half of...
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... satisfy complicated profile conditions. Another column-based method, Lam and Fredland ͑ 1993 ͒ , is an extension of the 2D general limit equilibrium formulation, and it can be solved using an iterative back-substitution procedure. The method of Leshchisky and Huang ͑ 1992 ͒ is not column-based and therefore does not have to assume the interforces between columns. This method takes a landslide as a whole and uses a limit equilibrium equation of functions of z ( x , y ), ( x , y ), and ( x , y ) to minimize the safety factor. This method simply assumes that the functions of z ( x , y ), ( x , y ), and ( x , y ) are continuous on the surface of slide and it is capable of dealing with a general but symmetrical 3D slip surface. Although greatly differing results may be obtained by using 3D, 2D, or 1D models for slope stability, the difference between 3D methods is not too large and it is acceptable for use in GIS when analyzing a certain large area using a simplified 3D model ͑ e.g., Hovland’s model ͒ . For the study of a large area, even a simplified 3D model can be satisfactory because the parameters chosen for the stability analysis are also generally not of high accuracy. In this research, by combining the GIS spatial analysis function with an improved Hovland ͑ 1977 ͒ 3D slope stability analysis model, in which the pore groundwater pressure is considered, a new GIS-based 3D deterministic model is introduced. To detect the 3D critical slip, a search is performed by means of a minimization of the 3D safety factor using the Monte Carlo random simulation method. The basic slip surface is assumed to be an ellipsoid slip and the critical slip will be changed according to layer strength and condition of discontinuous surface. The object of this change is to minimize the 3D safety factor. The other important problem for landslide hazard assessment is the nature and extent of the study object, but this topic has not received adequate attention in literature. Many researchers take it for granted that the pixel ͑ or grid ͒ will be the study object, simply because grid-based objects can be easily obtained in GIS and easily managed in the infinite slope model analysis. Grid-based objects are regularly distributed in space, so computer processing and manipulation is fast and algorithmically simple. But the grid cell does not bear any relation to the mechanism of slope failure and even to geological, geomorphologic, or other environmental boundaries, so the results obtained by this approach are relatively inaccurate and unacceptable in physical terms. In the natural environment, the interrelation between materials, form, and processes result in morphological boundaries which frequently reflect geomorphological and geological difference. Landslides have fixed relations to the geological and geomorphologic aspects of the study area. So in this research, the slope unit is taken as the object of study. The slope unit, that is, the portion of land surface that contains a set of ground conditions that differ from the adjacent units, possesses an explicit topographical ͑ break line, stream, aspect, and slope ͒ and geological form. Since a clear physical relationship exists between landslides and the fundamen- tal morphological elements of a hilly or mountain region, namely, drainage and dividing lines, the slope unit technique seems most appropriate for landslide hazard assessment. The appropriate size of a slope unit should be dependant on the average size of the landslide bodies present in the study area. Since it is virtually impossible to consistently draw dividing lines on topographic maps covering large regions, an automatic computer procedure is required. In this study, a GIS-based hydrologic analysis and modeling tool has been used to divide the slope unit automatically. Using the functions of GIS spatial analysis, the following parameters or data are available with respect to each pixel or polygon ͑ the whole study area is divided into pixels or polygons ͒ : 1. Topographical parameters ͑ such as elevation, inclination, and slope ͒ with respect to each pixel; 2. Spatial distribution and size parameters of landslide ͑ suspect critical slip surface and its confines ͒ ; 3. Mechanical parameters for each pixel or polygon; and 4. Groundwater conditions. By inputting these parameters into the deterministic model of slope stability, the value of the safety factor or the probability of failure can be obtained. In almost all of the column-based 3D model, the differential method is employed to analyze the integration equation of 3D safety factor, so the GIS grid-based data can be easily managed in the column-based model. Based on Hovland’s ͑ 1977 ͒ model, a GIS grid-based 3D model, in which pore groundwater pressure is considered, and in which all input data can be easily given in a grid-based form, will be proposed in detail. The global geometry of a potentially sliding 3D mass and its 3D column view are illustrated in Fig. 1. All slope-related geological data can be illustrated as shown by the 3D view of one grid column in Fig. 2. Assuming that the vertical sides of each pixel column are frictionless ͑ no side forces on the vertical sides of the pixel columns, or with their influence cancelling out ͒ , the 3D safety factor can be expressed ...
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... This rapid urbanization or built-up growth is driven by various factors, including the increasing trend of rural outmigration, improved road connectivity, the presence of rural markets, remarkable tourism growth etc. However, the construction of buildings or infrastructures on slopes with inclinations ranging from 35 to 45 degrees often neglects essential safety considerations, leading to significant devastation during earthquakes and heavy rainfall (Xie et al., 2003). This devastation is further intensified due to the alignment of the constructed houses, causing a chain effect of damage. ...
Rapid and uncontrolled urban growth in the Kumaun Himalayas in absence of proper land use policy has pushed built-up areas towards the tectonically and ecologically sensitive regions, reducing the availability of suitable built-up land while simultaneously increasing the vulnerability of both communities and environment. The identification of areas for sustainable built-up growth is of paramount importance to address the challenges arising from unregulated urban expansion. In this study GIS-based Fuzzy-AHP technique and machine learning algorithms (SVM and BN) were employed to delineate the potential built-up sites selection in Hawalbagh Block, Uttarakhand (India) using nine socio-physical drivers, including slope, aspect, LU/LC, distance to road, distance to drainage, distance to lineament, distance to landslide, distance to settlement, and lithology. The suitability maps generated by the three methods were validated using AU-ROC analysis, which demonstrated that each approach produces outstanding results with AU-ROC values more than 0.90. The comparison of the approaches shows that SVM (AUROC=0.99) outperforms BN (0.95) and GIS-based Fuzzy-AHP (0.90). The suitability maps were classified into five suitability classes. Assuming that very high and high suitability classes are acceptable for built-up expansion, the study identified potential built-up locations in the study region covering an area of 148.86 km2, 85.23 km2, and 55.25 km2 according to the Fuzzy-AHP technique, SVM model, and BN model, respectively. The suitability zonation in this study can serve as a foundation for the development of land-use policy or the formulation of master plans aimed at achieving a sustainable mountain ecology in the Kumaun Himalayas.
... Because of excessive rainfall, the surface water runoff destabilizes the slope, which needs to be considered for a proper drainage system (Dai and Lee, 2002;Ermini et al., 2005). Over the last few decades, many disastrous landslide events have taken place in this region, which has negatively affected constructions, human lives, agricultural land, and other infrastructure (Varnes, 1981;Mowen et al., 2003;EMDAT, 2010). The poor engineering practice that are used in the construction and development of new roads affects slope stability (Shrestha, 2010;Petley et al., 2007). ...
... Frequent occurrences of landslides cause notable destruction to human life and loss of property that accounts for millions of US dollars (Pradhan, 2010;Pradhan et al., 2010a). Each year the socio-economic loss caused by the landslides is estimated to be more than 1000 deaths and 4 billion USD properties (Varnes, 1981;Mowen et al., 2003). According to the report of EM-DAT (2007), global loss of landslide accounts for 1000 lives and 4 billion USD annually. ...
The Mountainous terrain,in the Himalayas is experiencing rapid development in a bewildering manner, which makes it more susceptible to landslides. Management and mitigation of landslide hazard begin with its mapping by integrating numerous methods and Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. However, it is difficult to produce reliable landslide susceptibility maps (LSM) with traditional remote sensing and GIS methods due to complexity of the mountainous terrain environments and huge datasets. Therefore, the present study investigates the applicability of Mamdani’s fuzzy inference system (FIS) to produce LSM in Himalayan terrain in India. It is compared with commonly used frequency ratio (FR) and information value method (IVM) approaches. Several causative factors were extracted and used to prepare thematic layers, including slope, aspect, curvature, solar radiance, SPI, TWI, rainfall, soil depth and NDVI. Landslide inventory was also created using google earth images and previously published work. The accuracy estimates for FR, IVM and FIS were performed based on ROC curves. FIS was found to provide an accuracy of 77.7%, followed by IVM (72%) and FR (71%) for LSM. The current study is a prototype for further studies in the Garhwal Himalayas and similar terrains, based on the vigorous Mamdani’s techniques of fuzzy inference theory. The outcomes of this work propose that an expert’s knowledge-based FIS method can produce an accurate LSM in such a complex terrain. Planners and concerned authorities can use the results further for landslide management and mitigation.
... The difference in 2D and 3D results is consistent with results obtained by other authors [53], as the outcomes of the 2D evaluation are always conservative, while the 3D analysis tends to enhance the safety factor [56]. ...
Geophysical surveys are a noninvasive reliable tool to improve geological models without requiring extensive in situ borehole campaigns. The usage of seismic refraction tomography (SRT), electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and borehole data for calibrating is very appropriate to define landslide body geometries; however, it is still only used occasionally. We present here the case of a Spanish Pyrenees slow-moving landslide, where ERT, SRT and lithological log data were integrated to obtain a geological three-dimensional model. The high contrasts of P-wave velocity and electrical resistivity values of the upper materials (colluvial debris and clayey siltstone) provided accurate information on the geometry of the materials involved in the landslide body, as well as the sliding surface. Geophysical prospecting allowed us to identify the critical sliding surface over a large area and at a reduced cost and, therefore, gives the geophysical method an advantage over borehole data. The three-dimensional model was used to carry out stability analyses of a landslide in 2D and 3D, which, coherently with previous studies, reveal that the lower part is more unstable than the upper units.
... Because of the high 3D spatial data processing capability of GIS, many scholars have added geotechnical professional models to their respective systems. For example, Professor Xie's team established a 3D limit equilibrium method based on GIS, and developed a slope stability analysis module called 3Dslope [13][14][15] . Jia et al. proposed a slope stability analysis method by coupling a rainfall in ltration model and 3D limit equilibrium method within the GIS environment 16 . ...
Combined with the spatial data processing capability of geographic information systems (GIS), a three-dimensional (3D) landslide wave height calculation method is proposed based on grid column units. First, the data related to the landslide are rasterized to form grid columns, and a force analysis model of 3D landslides is established. Combining the vertical strip method with Newton's laws of motion, dynamic equilibrium equations are established to solve for the wave height. Moreover, a 3D landslide wave height calculation expansion module is developed in the GIS environment, and the results are compared with those of the two-dimensional Pan Jiazheng method. Comparisons show that the maximum wave height obtained by the proposed method is 24.6% larger than that based on the Pan Jiazheng method. Compared with the traditional two-dimensional method, the 3D method proposed in this paper better represents the actual spatial state of the landslide and is more suitable for risk assessment.
... Knowledge-driven LSM approaches include fuzzy logic [10], hierarchical analysis [11], and expert scoring methods [12,13]. These methods are essentially mechanical models that predict the probability of landslides occurring within a certain spatial domain based on slope stability and landslide-triggering mechanisms [14]. They are characterized by their simplicity, operability, and ability to adequately express the inherent mechanisms of landslide hazards [15]. ...
Landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) is of great significance for the identification and prevention of geological hazards. LSM is based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs); CNNs use fixed convolutional kernels, focus more on local information and do not retain spatial information. This is a property of the CNN itself, resulting in low accuracy of LSM. Based on the above problems, we use Vision Transformer (ViT) and its derivative model Swin Transformer (Swin) to conduct LSM for the selected study area. Machine learning and a CNN model are used for comparison. Fourier transform amplitude, feature similarity and other indicators were used to compare and analyze the difference in the results. The results show that the Swin model has the best accuracy, F1-score and AUC. The results of LSM are combined with landslide points, faults and other data analysis; the ViT model results are the most consistent with the actual situation, showing the strongest generalization ability. In this paper, we believe that the advantages of ViT and its derived models in global feature extraction ensure that ViT is more accurate than CNN and machine learning in predicting landslide probability in the study area.
... This fact involves the manipulation, interpretation, and graphical representation of a huge amount of territorial data. Therefore, geographic information systems (G.I.S.) represent a powerful tool for identifying high-risk areas (Xie et al., 2003;Chacón et al., 2006;Kanungo, 2011;Kanungo et al., 2011Kanungo et al., , 2012Bednarik et al., 2012;Zhu et al., 2018). ...
Having a strong impact on human activities, landslides represent one of the most frequent hazards encountered throughout the world, but also in Romania. As a result, various exhaustive scientific approaches try to identify the areas affected by this phenomenon or at risk, among the proposed methods being those offered by G.I.S. techniques of spatial analysis in tandem with statistical methods. In the present study, G.I.S. methods of spatial analysis were used, with a focus on methodologies capable of determining the probability of occurrence of landslides, possible and viable within any territory. The analysis was carried out in the area of the commune of Bicazu Ardelean, Neamț County, Romania, where multiple areas with a medium-high and high probability of vulnerability were identified, by means of a deterministic “white-box” type model, followed by an evaluation from the point of view of the risk induced on the territorial infrastructures. Both the model and the evaluation generated suitable results, validated in G.I.S. and in the field. The obtained results attested the viability of the working method, as well as the potential of its application in any other areas with similar morphometric characteristics.
... The difference in 2D and 3D results is consistent with results obtained by other authors [53], as the outcomes of the 2D evaluation are always conservative, while the 3D analysis tends to enhance the safety factor [56]. ...
... With the improvement of computer performance, many scholars have begun to use finite element software to analyze actual engineering problems. By constructing a 1D, 2D, or 3D model of the slope and observing the plastic zone and the stress and strain, the safety factor of the slope can be easily solved and the stability of the slope can be analyzed [23][24][25]. In recent years, many studies have also begun to use numerical simulation methods to analyze root-soil coupling problems. ...
To explore the effect of grass and shrub plant roots on the stability of soil slopes in rainy areas in the south, this article relies on the Longlang Expressway construction project. Cynodon dactylon and Magnolia multiflora were selected as research subjects. The plant distribution characteristics and mechanical properties are analyzed. This paper uses ABAQUS finite element software to construct a 3D model of the planted slope in the test section. The stress and strain on the root system and the soil were observed, and the variation law of slope stability before and after plant protection under different rainfall events was compared and analyzed. The test and simulation results show that the root content of Cynodon dactylon gradually decreases with increasing depth. Cynodon dactylon was mainly distributed in the 0–30 cm soil body, and its effect on improving the cohesion of the soil body reached 75%. Magnolia multiflora belongs to vertical roots and has a strong and longer main root with relatively developed lateral roots. Its root system passes through the sliding surface of the slope bottom, which reduces the maximum equivalent plastic stress generated inside the slope by 61%. When the total rainfall duration is unchanged, under the three rainfall intensities of small, medium, and large, herbaceous plants increase the safety factor of the soil by 1.33%, 2.08%, and 6.1%, respectively, and the roots of shrubs increase the safety factor of the soil by 3.29%, 4.08%, and 4.32%, respectively. When the rainfall intensity does not change, as the rainfall time increases, the effect of plants on the slope safety factor first gradually increases and eventually stabilizes. The research results provide a reliable theoretical basis for analyzing the effect of plant roots on soil consolidation and slope protection, and they also lay a technical foundation for the promotion and application of ecological slope protection technology.
... Bridge inspections, asset inventories, maintenance monitoring, preconstruction surveys, construction monitoring, automated asphalt pavement inspections, traffic monitoring, law enforcement, avalanche monitoring, rail corridor monitoring, airport monitoring, and disaster response are examples of some of the transportation infrastructure-related applications of unmanned aerial platforms (Congress 2018;Congress et al. , 2020aGreenwood et al. 2019;McCormack 2008;Moreu and Taha 2018;Zekkos et al. 2018). Several previous studies have utilized remotely collected aerial geographical data to complement the slope stability analyses (Al-Rawabdeh et al. 2016;Congress et al. 2020a;Nagendran et al. 2019;Saroglou et al. 2018;Tiwari et al. 2003;Wang et al. 2019;Xie et al. 2003). ...
Assessing the stability of rock slopes is essential to ensuring the typical performance of adjacent transportation infrastructures but simulating the existing field topography and boundary conditions for stability analysis is challenging. This paper describes a case study in which highly weathered rock slopes adjacent to a railroad track in Texas were analyzed using close-range photogrammetry data obtained from an unmanned aerial vehicle with close-range photogrammetry (UAV-CRP). A highly weathered rock mass with low intact strength was considered as a single continuum that undergoes circular failure and was analyzed using Spencer’s two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) limit equilibrium method (LEM) analyses. A 3D critical slip surface was obtained to identify the critical sections on which to conduct the individual 2D stability analysis and obtain a safe resloping angle. These angles were further used to reslope the whole rock slopes and conduct a 3D analysis to arrive at a safe and economic slope angle for each side of the rock-cut. The realistic geometrical slopes developed from the aerial imagery were used to develop a framework for comprehensively analyzing the stability of a rock slope undergoing circular failure.
... DEM is a raster image with color-coded pixels, arranged in rows and columns of an image, with color representing the elevation of the corresponding point in the image [33]. Also, several previous studies have utilized remotely collected aerial data to complement the slope stability analyses with geographical information [32,[34][35][36][37][38]. ...
Transportation infrastructure facilitates the accessibility and mobility of goods, people, and services through its vast network spanning across the USA. The departments of transportation (DOT) agencies face many challenges in monitoring and maintaining these infrastructure assets for continuing their service and operations, especially those located adjacent to slopes in rural and remote areas. Mobilizing and conducting traditional infrastructure inspections in those conditions can be laborious and time-consuming. Also, the unstable or highly weathered rock slopes pose significant rockfall hazards due to the moisture content, intrusion, and temperature changes, transpired over a period of time, causing weathering and rockfalls, ultimately resulting in debris accumulation. Recently, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in conjunction with close-range photogrammetry techniques are being researched and used ubiquitously for infrastructure monitoring applications in and around mountainous regions. In this study, a rock-cut located in a remote terrain where a rail track was passing through was aerially inspected and imaged for performing a comprehensive safety assessment and analysis to evaluate the stability of rock-cut and ways to assess rockfall safety zones and boundaries. A unique approach was developed by leveraging the aerial mapping and data compilation along with an immersive three-dimensional visualization of slopes for conducting stability analysis followed by the evaluation of rockfall debris zones adjacent to rail tracks. Successful assessments conducted in this study indicate that the methodologies will benefit the transportation agencies in effectively monitoring and managing transportation infrastructure adjacent to hilly terrains and ensure the maintenance of safe clearance zones needed to safeguard the public and property.
