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3D Response surface and contour plots for LA yield (i) temperature (a) and reaction time (b) (ii) reaction time (b) and IL loading (c) and (iii) temperature (a) and IL loading (c)
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In the present study, optimal reaction conditions to produce levulinic acid (LA) from depithed sugarcane bagasse (DSB) using 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate [EMim][HSO4] ionic liquid (IL) were investigated. The effect of temperature (100–220 °C), reaction time (2–12 h), and ionic liquid loading (1–4 g) was assessed using response surfa...
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Aiming toward a scalable continuous electrochemical production of valeric acid, the mutual insolubility of valeric acid with the aqueous reaction medium of levulinic acid and the aqueous electrolyte are investigated in order to assess the possibility for an integrated product separation based on the liquid–liquid equilibrium of the system. The infl...
Citations
... This is one of the reasons why ILs are considered environmentally friendly solvents. Ionic liquids are not flammable, are thermally and chemically stable, are recoverable, and are recyclable [28]. Many ILs can dissolve biomass-related chemicals and are effective reaction solvents or catalysts; they are intensively investigated for converting biomass-related compounds into materials and second-generation biofuels [26], hence they will also be investigated in this work. ...
... The procedure for the production of LA from DSB is similar to the one used in our previous study [28], although for this study, the production was upscaled from the ratio (1: stirrer immersed in an oil bath for 7 h at 100 • C. The product was analyzed using HPLC (Shimadzu, Japan). ...
... The upscaled LA production from DSB (this work) gave an LA yield of 55% w 0.4% higher compared to the LA yield produced for the laboratory scale [28]. This that there is no significant difference that occurred when the reaction was upscal that the optimized parameters can be used to reproduce the laboratory scale resu only difference that was observed is the amount of water required-the mixture w thick and therefore it required more water to be added for the mixture to be stirre shows that a process that requires combining raw biomass with liquid reagents d scale linearly, i.e., the physical amount of biomass relative to the liquid reagent greater in the large-scale process. ...
γ-Valerolactone (GVL) is a platform chemical for the synthesis of both biofuels and biochemicals. The LA production from depithed sugarcane bagasse (DSB) resulted in a 55% LA yield, and the resulting LA was used to produce GVL. The effect of process parameters, namely, temperature (25–200 °C), time (2–10 h), and catalyst loading (0.5–5 g) were investigated for the GVL production from LA. Thereafter, the optimized conditions were used to produce GVL from LA derived from depithed sugarcane bagasse (DSB) yielded a GVL of 77.6%. The hydrogen required for the reduction of LA to GVL was formed in situ by formic acid and triethylamine in the presence of methanesulfonic acid (MsOH). Different solvents (including water and alcohols) were also tested to determine their effect on GVL yield, and water yielded the highest GVL of 78.6%. Different types of catalysts, which included mineral acids and ionic liquids, were used to determine their effect on GVL yield, and to provide a benchmark against MsOH. The GVL yield from DSB-derived LA is 1.0% lower than the GVL yield from a commercial sample of LA. LA generated from DSB has the potential to replace fossil fuel-derived LA.
... There are two techniques for producing LA from biomass residue. The first is a one-step process in which LA is directly generated from the biomass residue, also known as a one-pot synthesis [40][41][42]. The alternative technique comprises of two or more stages in which the biomass residue is pre-treated to remove hemicellulose and lignin, followed by cellulose or glucose hydrolysis, depending on the kind of pre-treatment used [37,[43][44][45]. ...
Levulinic acid (LA) was discovered in 1875 by heating candy with concentrated acid. Since then, it has been generated in a variety of ways from commercial sugars and their products in-cluding glucose, fructose, cellulose, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (5-HMF), maleic anhydride and furfuryl alcohol. However, the concern of food security has led to search for sustainable feedstock for the production of LA such as biomass. Although the use of biomass as substrate for LA synthesis offer various advantages, however, the shift to a bioeconomy remains difficult due to the several contributing variables that must be addressed, as detailed in this review. Various catalysts, including homogeneous, heterogeneous, and ionic liquids, have been employed in the development of an ecologically acceptable and lucrative method for producing LA from biomass. This study examines the literature on LA production from 1875 to 2021, what has been accomplished, and what ongoing obstacles exist.
Graphical Abstract
... The production of LA from DSB was upscaled from the procedure explained in our previous work [44]. For this study, the LA production from DSB was upscaled to 100 g of DSB and 400 g of IL (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate) using 350 ml of water in a round bottom flask set in an oil bath for 7 h at 100 °C. ...
... LA was extracted with ethyl acetate (40 ml × 7). The DSB-derived LA was quantified using HPLC (Shimadzu, Japan) as detailed previously [44]. ...
... The IL hydrolyses the macrosugars to C5 and C6 monomeric sugars which is converted to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) and rehydration of 5-HMF by an acid catalyst to LA [54,56]. The HPLC analyses of the upscaled LA production from DSB gave a yield of 55.3% which is slightly higher than the yield (54.6%) that was obtained in our previous work [44]. ...
The need for sustainability necessitates intensive research on using renewable resources to produce biofuels and biochemicals. The esterification of commercial levulinic acid (LA) into ethyl levulinate (EL) was first optimized using methanesulfonic acid (MsOH) and response surface methodology (RSM). The optimum condition for the esterification of commercial LA into EL was 5.25 h, 90 °C and 2.75 g of MsOH loading. The EL yield and selectivity obtained were 92.2% and 94%, respectively, at a LA conversion of 98%. The effect of various catalysts which are less corrosive and environmentally friendly, namely MsOH and ionic liquids (ILs), was investigated under fixed conditions to determine the best catalyst for the production of EL from LA. The alkyl levulinate ester selectivity from LA conversion was also studied by using linear and branched chain alcohols. The alkyl levulinate ester, ethyl levulinate, was produced from depithed sugarcane bagasse (DSB)-derived LA using a less corrosive homogenous catalyst (methanesulfonic acid). The reaction conditions of 5.25 h, 90 °C and 2.75 g of MsOH loading were used to produce EL from DSB-derived LA with an EL yield of 75%.
... The excess bagasse may be used to produce chemicals. When the pith is removed from SB, the resulting SB is called depithed sugarcane bagasse (DSB) (Mthembu et al. 2020). When original bagasse (mill-run bagasse) was compared with the depithed sugarcane bagasse (Mkhize et al. 2016), it was discovered that DSB is easier to handle, and it contains slightly more glucose. ...
... The procedure for the production of LA from DSB was similar to that used in a previous study (Mthembu et al. 2020). For this study, the production was upscaled from the ratio 1:4, i.e., 1 g of bagasse and 4 g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate [EMim][HSO4] to 100 g of bagasse and 400 g of [EMim][HSO4]. ...
... The LA yield obtained in this work was 55%, which is 0.4% higher than the smaller scale production of LA from DSB (Mthembu et al. 2020). This shows that there is no significant difference in LA yield when the reaction was upscaled. ...
Levulinic acid (LA) is a platform chemical that can be produced from biomass. Diphenolic acid (DPA) is a derivative of LA with the potential to replace bisphenol A, a plasticizer. To determine the optimum conditions for DPA production, commercial LA was used with a mild environmentally benign acid, namely, methanesulfonic acid (MsOH). The optimized reaction parameters were time (6 h), temperature (75 °C), and catalyst loading (5.5 g), yielding 65.8% DPA at 90% LA conversion. The response surface methodology (RSM) study indicated that the temperature had the most significant effect on DPA yield, followed by time and catalyst loading. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that the model was able to satisfactorily predict the DPA yield. To determine the effect of catalyst on DPA production from commercial LA, ionic liquids (ILs), MsOH, and sulfuric acid were used. IL catalysts produced 59 to 68% of DPA, MsOH produced 65.6% of DPA, and sulfuric acid produced the maximum DPA of 74%. The study of LA: phenol ratio revealed that more reactants (2:5) yielded the most DPA (86.35%). The optimized reaction conditions were then used to produce DPA from LA derived from depithed sugarcane bagasse (DSB), which yielded 64.5% of DPA.
The upgrading of a benzyl-type alcohols was explored via an orthogonal tandem sequence comprised of a first oxidative step producing the corresponding aldehydes, and a subsequent reductive amination to achieve...
India is the second-largest cultivator of sugarcane worldwide, the primary source of refined sugar. Increased demand for sugar has driven this industry as a mainstream pollutant-generating industry. Every year, a tremendous amount of liquid (molasses) and solid wastes (sugarcane bagasse, filter cake) are generated, posing a major bottleneck for waste management. Although there exist traditional approaches like incineration, landfills are being employed for handling sugarcane waste which leads to the emission of greenhouse gases, and foul odour and adds more cost to running a sustainable industry. Moreover, no value-added product is formed from such traditional approaches resulting in an immense loss of bioenergy. Researchers have emphasized transforming waste into a sustainable economic generation of higher\-value products over the past few decades. Sugarcane industrial waste is a rich source of lignocellulosic organic biomass, which is used as a raw material for the production of biofuel (bioethanol, biogas), single cells proteins, enzymes, organic acids, food additives and nutraceuticals. Day by day, with advanced technology, novel applications are evolving, adding more thrust to this area. In this chapter, the potential of valorization of sugarcane waste to value-added products is discussed comprehensively.
This volume is a comprehensive compilation of reviews that show how various waste products can be used to produce useful products. Thirteen chapters highlight the following topics:
- applications of plant-derived and fruit waste for value-added product formation;
- fuel and chemical production from lignin
- food waste bioconversion to high-value products
- organic residues valorization for value-added chemicals
- valorization of waste plastics to produce fuels and chemicals
- food valorization for bioplastic production and concepts of circular economy in the valorization process.
Chapters are written in an organized and strategic manner and also include the references from recent years. It will help students and researchers to quickly learn about modern waste valorization practices and advance their knowledge on the subject. The book is suitable as a reference for courses in environmental science, chemical engineering and agriculture. It also serves as a guide for trainees, managers and readers involved in waste management, sustainability and value-added product supply chains
Exhaustion of petroleum resources is seriously accelerating, hence, it is crucial to find renewable energies and change the global energy consumption structure. Biomass energy is the only carbon ‐ containing energy currently available and is irreplaceable in the preparation of fuels and chemicals. This study focuses on the transformation of furfuryl alcohol to ethyl levulinic acid ester using our prepared catalyst consisting of ionic liquid on polystyrene microspheres. The catalyst was characterized by IR, TG, XRD, BET and XPS techniques. In the presence of our catalyst, the conversion of furfuryl alcohol and ethyl levulinic acid yield was 98.54 % and 92.41 %, respectively. Repeated experiments showed that the acidic sites on the catalyst were occupied, slightly decreasing catalytic performance. However, after soaking and washing in concentrated sulfuric acid the catalytic activity was recovered, indicating immobilization on catalyst's surface and its stability during the reaction.
