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![2D dragonfly wing model in gliding flight used by Zhang and Lu [53], in which the red left line indicates forewing and the red right line represents hindwing. (Color figure online)](publication/311166685/figure/fig3/AS:960129017057303@1605924004415/2D-dragonfly-wing-model-in-gliding-flight-used-by-Zhang-and-Lu-53-in-which-the-red.gif)
2D dragonfly wing model in gliding flight used by Zhang and Lu [53], in which the red left line indicates forewing and the red right line represents hindwing. (Color figure online)
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In the recent decades, biomimetic robots have attracted scientific communities’ attention increasingly, as people try to learn from nature in which exist astonishing and uniquely evolved mechanisms shown by very species. Dragonfly, as such one example, demonstrates unique and superior flight performance than most of the other insect species and bir...
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Citations
... By virtue of the tandem wing configuration, they perform superior flight as they can hover in the air, glide with minimal energy consumption, and even maneuver in all directions [12][13][14][15], which makes them master all the flight conditions of helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, and gliders, which aroused intense interest to study the aerodynamics of dragonflies in different flight modes [16] and develop dragonflyinspired Micro Air Vehicles (MAVs) [17][18][19]. All four wings of a dragonfly are powered directly by the flight muscles attached to the wing bases; thus, they can independently adjust the flapping amplitude, the stroking phase, and the flapping amplitude offset of each wing to generate aerodynamic forces and torques [20][21][22]. To date, bionic engineers have devoted massive efforts to developing dragonfly-inspired flapping wing air vehicles, but very few untethered prototypes succeed in lifting off. ...
This paper describes a dragonfly-inspired Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicle (FW-MAV), named HiFly-Dragon. Dragonflies exhibit exceptional flight performance in nature, surpassing most of the other insects, and benefit from their abilities to independently move each of their four wings, including adjusting the flapping amplitude and the flapping amplitude offset. However, designing and fabricating a flapping robot with multi-degree-of-freedom (multi-DOF) flapping driving mechanisms under stringent size, weight, and power (SWaP) constraints poses a significant challenge. In this work, we propose a compact microrobot dragonfly with four tandem independently controllable wings, which is directly driven by four modified resonant flapping mechanisms integrated on the Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) of the avionics. The proposed resonant flapping mechanism was tested to be able to enduringly generate 10 gf lift at a frequency of 28 Hz and an amplitude of 180° for a single wing with an external DC power supply, demonstrating the effectiveness of the resonance and durability improvement. All of the mechanical parts were integrated on two PCBs, and the robot demonstrates a substantial weight reduction. The latest prototype has a wingspan of 180 mm, a total mass of 32.97 g, and a total lift of 34 gf. The prototype achieved lifting off on a balance beam, demonstrating that the directly driven robot dragonfly is capable of overcoming self-gravity with onboard batteries.
... This asymmetric pitching is then applied to FRWs to enlarge their rotating speed. For more information on dragonfly aerodynamics, some review papers are recommended [86][87][88]. ...
Since the birth of bio-inspired flapping-wing micro air vehicles, a controversial topic, i.e., whether and to what extent a flapping wing can outperform conventional micro rotors, has existed in the field of micro-to pico-scale unmanned aircraft. However, instead of answering this debate, an alternative idea that combines the flapping-wing and rotary-wing layouts was proposed and has been extensively studied over the last ten years. By merging bionic features of flapping wings into micro rotors, this novel layout, i.e., flapping rotary wing (FRW), can maintain autorotation with no driving torque and achieve both a superb lift generation and a moderate efficiency at a Reynolds number between 10 3 and 10 4 , presenting an additional choice for micro air vehicles when facing a task to balance the payload and energy cost. As the first review of FRW, this paper overviews the concept, bionic features, aerodynamic principles, and development of flyable prototypes since 2010, from fundamental aerodynamic mechanisms to key points in prototype design, including wing structure, actuator, transmission system, energy source, etc. The advantages and disadvantages of this novel layout over conventional flapping wings and micro rotors are discussed. Four challenging directions are then suggested to improve the flight performance of this layout and thus boost its application in military and civilian fields.
... From the previous research study [7][8][9][10], it is revealed that the in-phase flapping is beneficial for high lift and thrust, whereas counter-phase flapping is more suitable for stable flight like hovering. It is reported by few researchers [11][12][13][14][15][16] the wing-wing synergy with phase modulation between wings is beneficial for hovering flight. ...
In the present study, a flapping-wing micro-air vehicle (FWMAV) like a dragonfly is developed by changing the phase shift angle between the fore and hind wings and experimentally tested using the wind tunnel. Two conditions are considered while conducting the experiments; (1) hovering [advance ratio (J) or the inlet velocity of air is kept zero], and (2) forward flight condition (advance ratio J = 0.4). Four phase angles (γ) are considered in the experiment analysis (0°, 60°, 90°, and 180°). For the validation of experimental results, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was executed by implementing fluid–structure interaction method. It is observed that the in-phase flapping (γ = 0°) generates larger force and at the same time produces larger variation of force over the entire flapping cycle. This condition is suitable for take-off and forward flight of the dragonfly. In the counter-phase/out of phase (γ = 180°), the magnitude of force generated is less as compared to the in-phase flapping. However, the counter-phase condition is more stable as compared to in phase flapping, and thus, it is more suitable for hovering flight of the dragonfly. The time of interaction of wake capture, wing–wing interaction, and dipole structure are examined through 2-D vorticity flow fields around the fore and hind wings. The obtained CFD results are in close agreement with the experimental results.
... The optimal phasing of the wings for different flight setups and environmental conditions have been investigated extensively [21][22][23] . These studies however, either used rigid wing modeling or simplified geometries, or they investigated the effect of wing phasing in isolation without considering the variance of other kinematic parameters at the same time [11,24] . ...
To better understand dragonflies’ remarkable flapping wing aerodynamic performance, we measured the kinematic parameters of the wings in two different flight modes (Normal Flight Mode (NFM) and Escape Flight Mode (EFM)). When the specimens switched from normal to escape mode the flapping frequency was invariant, but the stroke plane of the wings was more horizontally inclined. The flapping of both wings was adjusted to be more ventral with a change of the pitching angle that resulted in a larger angle of attack during downstroke and smaller during upstroke to affect the flow directions and the added mass effect. Noticeably, the phasing between the fore and hind pair of wings varies between two flight modes, which affects the wing-wing interaction as well as body oscillations. It is found that the momentum stream in the wake of EFM is qualitatively different from that in NFM. The change of the stroke plane angle and the varied pitching angle of the wings diverts the momentum downwards, while the smaller flapping amplitude and less phase difference between the wings compresses the momentum stream. It seems that in order to achieve greater flight maneuverability a flight vehicle needs to actively control positional angle as well as the pitching angle of the flapping wings.
... More than 3600 dragonflies species exist in the world [6] with wing various corrugations and shapes that might be functionally different in terms of flight performance and aerodynamic characteristics, of which only a few have been analyzed in either flapping [7][8][9][10] or gliding flight [11,12]. Kesel's experimental studies were carried out in [13] from the fore wing (FW) of Aeshna Cyana. ...
In this paper, an experimental study was performed to examine the flow characteristics of fabricated micro corrugated wings by fully mimicking the real 3D Odonata wing. For this purpose, a true scale hind wing from the Orthetrum caledonicum species with a semi span length of 60 mm was reconstructed by non-destructive close-range photogrammetry and fabricated with an advanced 3D printer. The accuracy of the proposed reconstruction technique was evaluated and compared with a 3D model of the same wing created using a Micro-Computed Tomography (CT) scanning technique to show that the close-range photogrammetry method was able to predict the pattern of micro corrugation of the wings with satisfactory fidelity. To do that, the corrugation patterns of both reconstructed wings were compared at different sections of the wings. Then, high-resolution Particle Image Velocimetry was used to investigate the flow field of the wing during gliding flight at three low Reynolds numbers Re = 5 × 10³, Re = 8 × 10³ and Re = 12 × 10³, and angle of attack 10°. The results include free stream velocity, vorticity distribution, boundary layer, and flow visualization. The velocity contour and vorticity boundary layer of both wings were compared experimentally. The flow behavior around the corrugated patterns reconstructed from both methods were compared with satisfactory agreement. The results support that the corrugations of the wing act as turbulators to generate unsteady vorticity to transition the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent quickly, leading to delayed stall and improved aerodynamic performance. Moreover, this study shows the application of the presented photogrammetry method for corrugated wing reconstruction, which is fast, low-cost, non-destructive, with high replication accuracy for the next generation of micro air vehicles.
... Unlike many insects, Odonata wings have comparatively high aspect ratios [1], modest wing beat frequencies (30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40) [2][3][4], limited stroke angles (30 • -60 • ) [5,6], and are used in gliding flight modes [7]. Some steady-state aerodynamic parameters are worth considering under these circumstances [8,9]. ...
... b/2 is wing semi-span (half wingtip-to-wingtip span). Maximum chord (C max ) is the longest straight line from wing LE to TE [9,36]. ...
The flight performance and maneuverability of Odonata depends on wing shape and aero-structural characteristics, including airfoil shape, wingspan, and chord. Despite the superficial similarity between Odonata planforms, the frequency with which they are portrayed artistically, and the research interest in their aerodynamics, those features that are stable and those that are labile between species have not been identified. Studies have been done on 2D aerodynamics over corrugated wings; however, there is limited comparative quantified data on the planforms of Odonata wings. This study was undertaken to explore the scale relationships between the geometrical parameters of photogrammetrically reconstructed wings of 75 Odonata species, 66 from Epiprocta, and 9 from Zygoptera. The wing semi-spans captured in the database range from 24 to 85 mm. By carrying out an extensive statistical analysis of data, we show that the geometrical parameters for the suborder Epiprocta (dragonflies) can be classified into scale-dependent and independent parameters using regression analysis. A number of close correlations were found between the wingspan and the size of other structures. We found that amongst the variables considered, the largest independent variations against the forewing span were found in the chord of the hindwing, and that hindwing properties were not reliably predicted by the Odonata family. We suggest that this indicates continuous evolutionary pressure on this structure.
... Pinpointing the factors that shape the evolution of wings and flapping kinematics is key to any in-depth understanding of flight. Within the past decades, numerous comprehensive reviews and book chapters have been published on insect flight, focusing on components such as aerodynamic mechanisms for lift enhancement [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11], power requirements for wing flapping [12][13][14][15], wing kinematics and control [16][17][18][19][20][21], and the efficiency with which muscle mechanical power is turned into weight supporting lift [22,23]. This review is engaged in the link between three-dimensional wing structure and aerodynamics, focusing on recently published studies on the aerodynamic performance of wings in differently-sized insects. ...
The shape and function of insect wings tremendously vary between insect species. This review is engaged in how wing design determines the aerodynamic mechanisms with which wings produce an air momentum for body weight support and flight control. We work out the tradeoffs associated with aerodynamic key parameters such as vortex development and lift production, and link the various components of wing structure to flight power requirements and propulsion efficiency. A comparison between rectangular, ideal-shaped and natural-shaped wings shows the benefits and detriments of various wing shapes for gliding and flapping flight. The review expands on the function of three-dimensional wing structure, on the specific role of wing corrugation for vortex trapping and lift enhancement, and on the aerodynamic significance of wing flexibility for flight and body posture control. The presented comparison is mainly concerned with wings of flies because these animals serve as model systems for both sensorimotor integration and aerial propulsion in several areas of biology and engineering.
... Other research has focused on the significance of dorsal wing clapping ("clap and fling kinematics") in dragonflies for force enhancement (Takizawa et al., 2015), force production with eight flapping wings during mating flights, in which males and females bodies are mechanically coupled (Davidovich & Ribak, 2016), and dragonfly-inspired man-made micro-air-vehicles (Jang & Yang, 2018;Kok, Fatiaki, Rosser, Chahl, & Ogunwa, 2017;Sivasankaran et al., 2017;Takahashi, Concordel, Paik, & Shimoyama, 2016). Recent comprehensive reviews were published on the aerodynamics of the different types of flight manoeuvres (Sun, Gong, & Huang, 2017), the two-dimensional flows around flapping tandem wings (Lua, Lu, Zhang, Lim, & Yeo, 2016) and on the link between flight muscle system, flight mechanics and aerodynamics in damselflies and dragonflies (Bomphrey, Nakata, Henningsson, & Lin, 2016). ...
... Notably, the above conclusions are limited to the tested experimental case that mimics the flow conditions in a damselfly with horizontal stroking. In hovering dragonflies with vertical stroke planes, wing-wake interactions should be minimal, but potentially increase with increasing forward speed (Lua et al., 2016;Sun et al., 2017). Thus, the investigated particular case cannot be the only solution to a general understanding of how body morphology and wing motion determine posture stability and course control in the order Odonatoptera. ...
The fluid dynamics of aerodynamic force control in insects depends on how oscillating wings interact with the surrounding air. The resulting flow structures are shaped by the flow induced by the wing’s instantaneous motion but also on flow components resulting from force production in previous wing strokes and the motion of other wings flapping in close proximity. In four-winged insects such as damsel- and dragonflies, the flow over the hindwings is affected by the forewing downwash. In these animals, a phase-shift between the stroke cycles of forewing and hindwing modulates aerodynamic performance of the hindwing via leading edge vortex destruction, changes in local flow condition and the wake capture effect. This review is engaged in the significance of wing-wake interference for force control, showing that in damselfly model wings the strength of phase-dependent force modulation critically depends on the vertical spacing between forewing and hindwing stroke planes and the aspect ratio of both wings. We conclude that damsel- and dragonflies reach maximum steering capacity for body posture control when forewings and hindwings flap in close proximity and have similar length. The latter findings are of significance for the evolution and diversification of insect wings because they might explain why forewings and hindwings are little different in the order Odonatoptera.
... Dragonflies are capable of gliding 40 chord lengths in one complete wing beat. 60 This is the simplest mode of flight and the easiest to measure and analyze. 61 The dragonfly expends very little effort in this mode. ...
In the recent decades, the design and development of biomimetic micro air vehicles have gained increased interest by the global scientific and engineering communities. This has given greater motivation to study and understand the aerodynamics involved with winged insects. Dragonflies demonstrate unique and superior flight performance than most of the other insect species and birds. They are capable of sustained gliding flight as well as hovering and able to change direction very rapidly. Pairs of independently controlled forewings and hindwings give them an agile flying ability. This article presents a review of all published journal articles, listed in the Thomson-Reuters Web-of-Science database (1985–2018), that are related to the flight aerodynamics of dragonflies or micro air vehicles that biomimic them. The effects of dragonfly wing motions and interactions (between forewing and hindwing) that are necessary to generate the appropriate aerodynamic forces in different flight modes are described. The associated power requirements of these modes are also addressed. This article aims to provide a valuable reference to the aerodynamic design and control of dragonfly-inspired biomimetic micro air vehicles.
... One of the important parameters is b/2 (half wingtip to half wingtip span) which is called wing semi-span [6]. Other parameters are the chord, which is the straight distance between leading edge (LE) [1] and trailing edge (TE), and the longest straight line from LE to TE is called "maximum chord" [1,7]. The aim of this paper is to provide the paper is to present the first aerodynamic analysis of 3D corrugated wings from multiple species and also a preliminary sizing of the main insect wing parameters, including wingspan, maximum/ minimum chord length and their location. ...
... One of the important parameters is b/2 (half wingtip to half wingtip span) which is called wing semi-span [6]. Other parameters are the chord, which is the straight distance between leading edge (LE) [1] and trailing edge (TE), and the longest straight line from LE to TE is called "maximum chord" [1,7]. The aim of this paper is to provide the paper is to present the first aerodynamic analysis of 3D corrugated wings from multiple species and also a preliminary sizing of the main insect wing parameters, including wingspan, maximum/ minimum chord length and their location. ...
The wings of a flying insect are corrugated with varying material and complexity which determine their aerodynamic performance and maneuverability during flight. The wing corrugations vary span-wise which make a complex 3D structure. This complexity raises a need to have a full three-dimensional reconstruction of the wing for aerodynamic analysis. However, 3D scanning methods like MicroComputed Tomography and 3D laser scanning are destructive and expensive operations. This paper aims to present a new method for aerodynamic analysis of 3D corrugated wings. This method is an applied non-destructive photogrammetric method for simulating the wing structure including all the details and corrugations across the wing. The main aerodynamic parameters of the forewing (FW) of five species, such as maximum chord location, wing area and wing length are presented. Also, the three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was applied, and aerodynamics results were evaluated for five different species of insects with the same scale for the first time. The results show that by using the presented method, it is possible to measure the characteristics of bio-inspired 3D wings and distinguish the influence of the various corrugations on aerodynamic performance.
