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1 Stages in the Human Life Cycle and Life History
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Context 1
... of the basic principles of human growth, development, and maturation are best presented in terms of the events that take place during the life cycle. One of the many possible orderings of events is given in Table 11.1, in which growth periods are divided into developmentally functional stages. This is only one possible ordering, because declaring that one moment (e.g. , fertilization) is the beginning of life is arbitrary in a continuous cycle that passes through fixed stages in each individual person and in generation after generation. ...
Context 2
... example, head circumference measures the maximum girth of the skull, which includes bone and, more impor- tantly, the size of the brain. Some representative data on size at birth and at 18 years of age for several measures are given in Table 11.2. At birth, sexual dimorphism (a difference in appearance or behavior between males and females) in size is biologi- cally insignificant. ...
Context 3
... after birth can be divided into distinct periods in many ways. In this chapter, as explained earlier, we use a four-stage model of human postnatal growth and development-infant, child, juvenile, adolescent-between birth and adulthood (outlined in Table 11.1). The rationale for this model begins with an analysis of the amount and rate of growth from birth to adulthood (more detailed explanation for the four-stage model is found in Bogin 1999). ...
Context 4
... difference may be illustrated by comparing simple ratios of brain weight divided by total body weight. The data are given in Table 11.3. At birth, this ratio averages 0.09 for the great apes and 0.12 for humans, showing that in proportion to body size, humans are born with brains that average 1.33 times larger than those of the apes. ...
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... Comparative studies of hominin skeletal and dental development suggest it is unlikely that derived characteristics of the modern human developmental pattern, including an extended period of moderate growth preceding puberty followed by an adolescent growth spurt, evolved in our genus prior to 1.5 Ma (Bogin 2020;Schwartz 2012;Thompson and Nelson 2011). Indeed, distinct early childhood and adolescent life history phases may have evolved relatively recently within our lineage, with adolescence emerging only in the last 100,000 years (Bogin 1999(Bogin , 2020Gawlik and Hochberg 2012;Hochberg 2012;Smith 1992;Smith and Tompkins 1995;Thompson and Nelson 2011). ...
... Comparative studies of hominin skeletal and dental development suggest it is unlikely that derived characteristics of the modern human developmental pattern, including an extended period of moderate growth preceding puberty followed by an adolescent growth spurt, evolved in our genus prior to 1.5 Ma (Bogin 2020;Schwartz 2012;Thompson and Nelson 2011). Indeed, distinct early childhood and adolescent life history phases may have evolved relatively recently within our lineage, with adolescence emerging only in the last 100,000 years (Bogin 1999(Bogin , 2020Gawlik and Hochberg 2012;Hochberg 2012;Smith 1992;Smith and Tompkins 1995;Thompson and Nelson 2011). Patterns of skeletal and dental development exhibited by australopithecines and early Homo indicate that they likely experienced relatively brief periods of juvenile dependency and accelerated maturation in comparison to late Homo (Dean et al. 2001;Hemmer 2014;Schwartz 2012). ...
Developmental plasticity, the regulation of ontogenesis in response to environmental cues, is hypothesized to evolve in spatially and temporally heterogeneous environments and may facilitate dispersal, novel habitat occupation, and niche construction. In contemporary human populations, exposure to environmental adversity informs a variety of developmental processes, including the pace and tempo of somatic growth and reproductive maturation. The ability to regulate these aspects of development in response to available resources may have been advantageous in the novel and marginal environments encountered by our ancestors, outweighing potential costs associated with elevated morbidity and mortality risks in adulthood. Yet only recently have biological anthropologists begun to systematically explore the relationship between developmental plasticity and patterns of growth, morbidity, and mortality in the human skeletal and hominin fossil records. What we currently know about hominin evolution suggests that, after the emergence of Homo erectus, climate change and repeated episodes of dispersal promoted the accumulation and maintenance of plastic traits in our genus. At the same time, the evolution of prolonged childhood and adolescence phases extended the hominin developmental lifecycle, creating additional opportunities for environmental signals to inform phenotypic trajectories. Experiences in childhood and adolescence may alter processes of skeletal growth, development, and maturation, potentially confounding efforts to associate episodes of early life stress with downstream phenotypic effects. Studies of developmental plasticity in late Homo, particularly tests of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis, should carefully consider how opportunities for plasticity late in the developmental lifecycle contribute to patterns of phenotypic variation. Accounting for sources of bias amplified by our derived developmental pattern, including catch-up growth, swamping, and equifinality, will aid researchers in investigating the potential costs and benefits of plastic processes initiated during development and their impact on skeletal phenotype.
... Respecto de las estimaciones referidas a la dentición permanente, solo se consideraron las correspondientes a los primeros molares, ya que son las únicas piezas dentales que pudieron ser relevadas en tres individuos. También se evaluaron los datos obtenidos respecto del sexo estimado (femeninos vs. masculinos); entre los individuos sin y con indicadores patológicos; entre menores y mayores de 3 años (momento que refiere a la finalización de la infancia y el inicio de la niñez, según Bogin y Smith, 2000); 1 y según la cronología (precontacto vs. poscontacto). Se calcularon asimismo las diferencias relativas entre pares de edades estimadas para cada individuo con los distintos métodos, considerando los promedios de cada una de ellas, y para toda la muestra, las diferencias absolutas de las comparaciones según las variables en función del sexo, de los indicadores patológicos, de la edad de muerte y de la cronología. ...
La estimación de la edad en restos humanos arqueológicos y forenses constituye uno de los principales
desafíos que se deben afrontar antes de avanzar en cualquier otro tipo de análisis. Si bien los resultados
suelen ser más precisos en individuos no adultos que en adultos, en ocasiones pueden observarse incongruencias
entre los datos obtenidos a partir del relevamiento de diferentes elementos, así como en la
implementación de diversas propuestas metodológicas. El objetivo de este trabajo es discutir las variaciones
identificadas en las estimaciones de las edades de muerte de siete individuos no adultos procedentes
de Tierra del Fuego. Se aplicaron diferentes métodos que evalúan la secuencia de erupción dental y la
longitud máxima de los huesos largos. Los resultados indican edades de muerte de entre 38 semanas de
gestación y 9 años, con variaciones de entre 0 y 5,25 años. Las diferencias más apreciables se observaron
al comparar la longitud máxima de los huesos largos con la erupción dental; la primera tiende a estimar
edades menores que la segunda, principalmente en los individuos mayores a los tres años. Se destaca la
complejidad inherente al proceso de estimación de la edad de muerte en individuos no adultos, motivo
por el cual resulta prioritario identificar las metodologías más apropiadas para obtener esa información.
... Respecto de las estimaciones referidas a la dentición permanente, solo se consideraron las correspondientes a los primeros molares, ya que son las únicas piezas dentales que pudieron ser relevadas en tres individuos. También se evaluaron los datos obtenidos respecto del sexo estimado (femeninos vs. masculinos); entre los individuos sin y con indicadores patológicos; entre menores y mayores de 3 años (momento que refiere a la finalización de la infancia y el inicio de la niñez, según Bogin y Smith, 2000); 1 y según la cronología (precontacto vs. poscontacto). Se calcularon asimismo las diferencias relativas entre pares de edades estimadas para cada individuo con los distintos métodos, considerando los promedios de cada una de ellas, y para toda la muestra, las diferencias absolutas de las comparaciones según las variables en función del sexo, de los indicadores patológicos, de la edad de muerte y de la cronología. ...
La estimación de la edad en restos humanos arqueológicos y forenses constituye uno de los principales desafíos que se debe afrontar antes de avanzar en cualquier otro tipo de análisis. Si bien los resultados suelen ser más precisos en individuos no adultos que en adultos, en ocasiones pueden observarse incongruencias entre los datos obtenidos a partir del relevamiento de diferentes elementos, así como en la implementación de diversas propuestas metodológicas. El objetivo de este trabajo es discutir las variaciones identificadas en las estimaciones de las edades de muerte de siete individuos no adultos procedentes de Tierra del Fuego. Se aplicaron diferentes métodos que evalúan la secuencia de erupción dental y la longitud máxima de los huesos largos. Los resultados indican edades de muerte de entre 38 semanas de gestación y 9 años, con variaciones de entre 0 y 5,25 años. Las diferencias más apreciables se observaron al comparar la longitud máxima de los huesos largos con la erupción dental; la primera tiende a estimar edades menores que la segunda, principalmente en los individuos mayores a los tres años. Se destaca la complejidad que implica estimar esta variable, motivo por el cual resulta prioritario reflexionar sobre las metodologías seleccionadas para este fin.
... 15 However, musculoskeletal growth and brain development continue throughout adolescence. 16 Thus, sufficient energetic resources are necessary to maintain growth, development, and reproductive efforts. Undernutrition has therefore been connected to later menarche, as a girl may not have sufficient metabolic resources necessary for this costly developmental transition. ...
Purpose
This study analyzed the relationship between household food security and variation in age at menarche, as well as the connections between food insecurity, nutritional status, and allostatic load, among girls aged 12-15 years from the 2009-2014 United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
Methods
Data analysis included mean comparisons of age at menarche among household food security groups (high, marginal, low, and very low) as well as categorical variables known to associate with age at menarche (ethnicity, poverty status, body mass index (BMI), allostatic load, and milk consumption). Chi-square analyses tested the associations between household food security and additional categorical variables. Univariate and multivariate regression models tested the relationship between variation in age at menarche and household food security, ethnicity, BMI, and allostatic load categories while controlling for age.
Results
Non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic/Mexican American girls had earlier mean ages at menarche, higher mean BMIs, and disproportionately experienced household food insecurity when compared to non-Hispanic White-identifying girls. In the univariate analyses, marginal household food security, Hispanic/Mexican American and Black ethnicities, overweight and obese BMI categories, and marginal-high allostatic load were each associated with lower age at menarche compared to reference categories. These associations were maintained in the multivariate analysis, although only Hispanic/Mexican American ethnicity predicted earlier menarche when compared to Non-Hispanic White girls.
Conclusions
Marginal household food security, particularly for girls who identified as non-white, predicted earlier age at menarche independent of nutritional status and allostatic load. At the same time, having more energetic resources (i.e., higher BMI) also significantly predicted earlier menarche.
... Sin embargo, el grupo que comprende el rango de 15-19,9 años seguramente ya desarrollaba la mayoría de las actividades propias de adultos. Por tal motivo, no debemos dejar de mencionar la respuesta diferencial a los estresores ambientales que presentan estos grupos etarios, la cual se traduce en una menor mortalidad (Bogin y Smith 2000). ...
Paleodemography is a line of research that is often underestimated in bioarchaeological studies because prehistoric sites generally lack written records that provide accurate information about the societies that generated them. Given the high number of individuals buried at the Médano Petroquímica site and the short period of occupation thereof, the use of life tables and different paleodemographic indices would allow us to provide relevant information about population dynamics for the study area during the late Holocene. Infant mortality, female fertility rates, and other indicators suggest it would be a population with a tendency towards growth. In addition, the results would support the model proposed by some researchers of decreasing residential mobility in the region, increasing population density, and the appearance of formal burial areas during the initial period of Spanish- indigenous contact.
... Others suggest that non-adult sex estimation is ambiguous (Krishan et al., 2016) or impossible to perform before puberty (Bruzek & Murail, 2006;Sutter, 2003) because dimorphic changes are very subtle (Bulygina, Mitteroecker, & Aiello, 2006;Guatelli-Steinberg, Sciulli, & Betsinger, 2008;Ubelaker & DeGaglia, 2017). Factors such as the socioenvironmental stress processes (Bogin & Smith, 2000;Stinson, 2000), maternal metabolic constraints, energetics of pregnancy (Dunsworth, Warrener, Deacon, Ellison, & Pontzer, 2012), sexual selection and mating preferences (Frayer & Wolpoff, 1985) are also liable to induce phenotypic variations on skeletal morphology, although their extent is still unknown (Best, Garvin, & Cabo, 2017). However, it is known that bone tissue is subject to both hormonal surges established by the hypothalamicpituitary-gonadal axis, and biomechanical forces induced by fetal movements (Bergadá et al., 2006;Forest, de Peretti, & Bertrand, 1976;Laurent et al., 2014;Stull, L'Abbé, & Ousley, 2017), critical aspects for the sexual development up to adult life (Del Giudice et al., 2018;Wilson, Ives, Cardoso, & Humphrey, 2015). ...
Objectives: Sex is usually not estimated in skeletonized non-adult individuals because sexual dimorphism is considered minimal before puberty. In 2017, a new approach based on the shape of the auricular surface was proposed, showing that this ana-tomic area of the ilium is dimorphic. This study tests the reproducibility and evaluates the accuracy of the method in a bigger sample. Materials and Methods: Thirty males and 31 females from the Lisbon Collection (1 day-18 years old) were analyzed by two researchers, one experienced, and the other without previous knowledge of the method. The sample was divided into three groups according to prepubertal and pubertal hormonal peaks (<2, 0-12, and 13-18 years old). Two metric variables (DE/AD and FI/CF ratios), two morphological features (Overall Morphology , OM and Morphology of the Retroauricular End of the Superior Demiface, MRS), and two formulae were tested based on the adequate results obtained in the original article. Results: Data shows a low interobserver error (ICC > 0.92; K > 0.74). Morphological features provide better results than the metrics (DE/AD = 77.05%; FI/CF = 73.77%; OM = 80.33%; MRS = 85.24%). The discriminant function correctly classified 86.66% of the males and the logistic regression, 83.33%. The method was equally reliable in 0-12 and 13-18 years-old age groups and more accurate in males. The accuracy of most of the variables reached 100% for males under 2 years-old, and the probabilities were higher than for older individuals. The percentages of correct estimations are not influenced by the age, year, and cause of death. Discussion: Despite the relatively small sample size, this study confirms the usefulness of the auricular surface for non-adult sexual estimation, especially for those younger than 2 years old. Additional validation tests in documented individuals from other geographic regions are suggested.
K E Y W O R D S ilium, infants, metric and nonmetric variables, probabilities, sexual dimorphism
... Others suggest that non-adult sex estimation is ambiguous (Krishan et al., 2016) or impossible to perform before puberty (Bruzek & Murail, 2006;Sutter, 2003) because dimorphic changes are very subtle (Bulygina, Mitteroecker, & Aiello, 2006;Guatelli-Steinberg, Sciulli, & Betsinger, 2008;Ubelaker & DeGaglia, 2017). Factors such as the socioenvironmental stress processes (Bogin & Smith, 2000;Stinson, 2000), maternal metabolic constraints, energetics of pregnancy (Dunsworth, Warrener, Deacon, Ellison, & Pontzer, 2012), sexual selection and mating preferences (Frayer & Wolpoff, 1985) are also liable to induce phenotypic variations on skeletal morphology, although their extent is still unknown (Best, Garvin, & Cabo, 2017). However, it is known that bone tissue is subject to both hormonal surges established by the hypothalamicpituitary-gonadal axis, and biomechanical forces induced by fetal movements (Bergadá et al., 2006;Forest, de Peretti, & Bertrand, 1976;Laurent et al., 2014;Stull, L'Abbé, & Ousley, 2017), critical aspects for the sexual development up to adult life (Del Giudice et al., 2018;Wilson, Ives, Cardoso, & Humphrey, 2015). ...
Objectives:
Sex is usually not estimated in skeletonized non-adult individuals because sexual dimorphism is considered minimal before puberty. In 2017, a new approach based on the shape of the auricular surface was proposed, showing that this anatomic area of the ilium is dimorphic. This study tests the reproducibility and evaluates the accuracy of the method in a bigger sample.
Materials and methods:
Thirty males and 31 females from the Lisbon Collection (1 day-18 years old) were analyzed by two researchers, one experienced, and the other without previous knowledge of the method. The sample was divided into three groups according to prepubertal and pubertal hormonal peaks (<2, 0-12, and 13-18 years old). Two metric variables (DE/AD and FI/CF ratios), two morphological features (Overall Morphology, OM and Morphology of the Retroauricular End of the Superior Demiface, MRS), and two formulae were tested based on the adequate results obtained in the original article.
Results:
Data shows a low interobserver error (ICC > 0.92; K > 0.74). Morphological features provide better results than the metrics (DE/AD = 77.05%; FI/CF = 73.77%; OM = 80.33%; MRS = 85.24%). The discriminant function correctly classified 86.66% of the males and the logistic regression, 83.33%. The method was equally reliable in 0-12 and 13-18 years-old age groups and more accurate in males. The accuracy of most of the variables reached 100% for males under 2 years-old, and the probabilities were higher than for older individuals. The percentages of correct estimations are not influenced by the age, year, and cause of death.
Discussion:
Despite the relatively small sample size, this study confirms the usefulness of the auricular surface for non-adult sexual estimation, especially for those younger than 2 years old. Additional validation tests in documented individuals from other geographic regions are suggested.
... The third area is life history evolution, which includes both theory and empirical studies of biological development in living and fossil species. Weaving together these three strands of research in human biology, auxology, and life history is a "biocultural perspective" of human development and evolution (Bogin and Smith, 2012). The biocultural perspective is complementary to approaches to human development from neuroscience and psychology, but it is also distinct in the use of some words and phrases. ...
... The human skeletal growth spurt is unequaled by other species, and when viewed graphically, the duration and intensity of the growth spurt defines human adolescence ( Fig. 1)dit is a speciesspecific characteristic. More detailed explanation of the evolution of human adolescence may be found elsewhere (Bogin, 2009;Bogin and Smith, 2012). ...
... American Museum of Natural History, New York. (Bogin and Smith, 2012). The greater fatness of the newborn, which is comprised of both white and brown adipose tissue, in turn, provides energy to support the larger brain at birth. ...
The postnatal life cycle of the social mammals, including the nonhuman primates, has three basic stages of development: infant, juvenile, and adult. Human beings are unusual and add a childhood stage after infancy and an adolescence stage after the juvenile stage. The human pattern of life history in both brain and body growth entails a large investment of energy and time by older members of the social group toward infants and children. This is achieved via a new type of breeding strategy called biocultural reproduction. The evolution of human life history results in enhanced reproductive success for the individuals and our species.
... Humans as a species have relatively slow life histories, and individual differences are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 ADJUSTMENTS IN FUTURE PLANNING 6 within a subset of the slower range (Low, 1998). Also, although human life history variation is often described along a unidimensional continuum (e.g., Figueredo et al., 2006), there is growing evidence for multi-dimensionality in life history variation. ...
Life history theory (LHT) is a powerful explanatory framework examining how developmental environments and life experiences shape allocations of effort to fitness-promoting domains in nested sets of trade-offs. Time orientation is a central psychological aspect of human life history variation, representing the degree to which behaviors are oriented towards immediate versus future goals. Identifying critical sensitive periods for shaping life history variation and verifying the scope of life history plasticity are important issues for both theory and practical application. Many LHT frameworks propose sensitive periods from gestational development through middle childhood, though recent research suggests facultative adjustments may occur much later in the lifespan. The current study examines how experiences of poor tap water quality during the Flint water crisis, associated with toxic contamination and adverse health effects, may have affected time orientations. Degraded expectations for health and longevity may have affected psychological aspects of life history variation, with important consequences for health-related behaviors. Controlling for socio-demographics and other environmental factors associated with life history variation, those who experienced worse tap water quality had lower general tendencies for future planning. Tap water quality experiences predicted several health-related behaviors, independent of socio-demographics, some relationships were mediated through tendencies for future planning.
... A more complete telling of the evolution of life course studies has been narrated elsewhere (e.g., Elder, 1994;Mayer, 2004) and is beyond the scope of this paper. But particularly important in this regard have been preoccupations in demography with conceptualizing and measuring cohort effects (e.g., Ryder, 1965), in economics with life cycle theories of intertemporal choices (e.g., Modigliani, 1966;Loewenstein & Elster, 1992) and marginal utility (e.g., Gossen, 1998), in anthropology with evolutionary life history theory and its emphasis on the fundamental trade-offs between growth and reproduction and between quantity and quality of offspring (e.g., , in biology with the differentiated functioning of living organisms during distinct phases of their "life cycle" (e.g., Bogin & Smith, 2012), in social anthropology with theories of age structuring (Kertzer & Keith, 1984), in historical science with prosopography, life story, and oral history approaches (e.g., Harrison, 2009;Perks & Thompson, 2016), in criminology with delinquency careers (e.g., Sampson & Laub, 2003), and in epidemiology with modeling pathways connecting early life conditions and later health outcomes (e.g., Wadsworth & Kuh, 2016). This is just a sampling of the many spaces in which the spirit of the life course perspective has thrived as it has evolved. ...
This paper proposes a conceptualization of the life course as a set of behavioral processes characterized by interdependencies that cross time, life domains, and levels of analysis. We first discuss the need for a systematized approach to life course theory that integrates parallel and partially redundant concepts developed in a variety of disciplines. We then introduce the ‘life course cube,’ which graphically defines and illustrates time-domain-level interdependencies and their multiple interactions that are central to understanding life courses. Finally, in an appendix, we offer a formal account of these interactions in a language that can be readily adopted across disciplines. Our aim is to provide a consistent and parsimonious foundation to further develop life course theories and methods and integrate life course scholarship across disciplines.
