Bearded pig (Sus barbatus). Ecology, conservation status, and research methodology. Background document for the electronic conference on bearded pig research, and recommendations for a collaborative research programme

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Bearded pig (Sus barbatus)
Ecology, conservation status, and research methodology
Background document for the electronic conference
on bearded pig research, and recommendations for a collaborative research programme
by Erik Meijaard,
with input from Udo Ganslosser and Liana Geidezis
24 – 29 May 2000, Bogor, Indonesia
WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE – INDONESIA (WWF-Indonesia)
CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH (CIFOR
ECOSENSE CONSULTANTS

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© 2000 World Wide Fund for Nature – Indonesia/Center for International Forestry Research
Bearded pig (Sus barbatus). Ecology, conservation status, and research methodology. Background
document for the electronic conference on bearded pig research, and recommendations for a
collaborative research programme
© 2000 Erik Meijaard/Ecosense Consultants
Cover photo by Margaret Kinnaird, WCS-Indonesia. Bearded pig from Sarawak, Borneo

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Bearded pig (Sus barbatus)
Ecology, conservation status, and research methodology
Background document for the electronic conference
on bearded pig research, and recommendations for a collaborative research programme
by Erik Meijaard,
with input from Udo Ganslosser and Liana Geidezis
24 – 26 May 2000, Bogor, Indonesia
WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE – INDONESIA (WWF-Indonesia)
CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH (CIFOR)
ECOSENSE CONSULTANTS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank World Wide Fund for Nature - Indonesia (WWF-I) and the Center for International
Forestry Research (CIFOR) for financial and logistic support, and WWF-I’s Dale Withington and Stephan
Wulffraat for support and advice. Thanks to Liz Bennett for her comments on the final draft of this
document.

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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..........................................................................................................................iv
CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................... v
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................. 1
MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP (24 – 29 May 2000)................... 2
DESCRIPTION AND TAXONOMY............................................................................................................. 3
Description ..............................................................................................................................................3
Taxonomy and Phylogeny .......................................................................................................................3
DISTRIBUTION.......................................................................................................................................... 5
Borneo.....................................................................................................................................................5
Sumatra...................................................................................................................................................5
Peninsular Malaysia ................................................................................................................................7
ECOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Habitat.....................................................................................................................................................8
Migratory behaviour and feeding ecology ................................................................................................8
Daily movements..................................................................................................................................9
Yearly migrations .................................................................................................................................9
Borneo..............................................................................................................................................9
Peninsular Malaysia .......................................................................................................................11
Sumatra..........................................................................................................................................11
Eruptions............................................................................................................................................12
Population states ...............................................................................................................................13
Swimming and bearded pigs..............................................................................................................14
Reproduction and Life History................................................................................................................15
Mortality.................................................................................................................................................15
Differences in ecology of bearded pigs and other pigs ..........................................................................15
Forest-pig interaction.............................................................................................................................16
Ranging is directly linked to phenology..................................................................................................16
THE USE AND CONSERVATION OF BEARDED PIGS.......................................................................... 18

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Habitat Loss.......................................................................................................................................... 18
The effects of habitat loss ..................................................................................................................... 19
Disease................................................................................................................................................. 19
Hunting.................................................................................................................................................. 19
Pigs as pests to agricultural crops......................................................................................................... 21
Protection and management of bearded pig populations....................................................................... 21
AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES .............................................................................23
Resource selection, foraging ecology, nutrition, food and habitat selectivity ......................................... 23
Optimality Approaches in General ..................................................................................................... 23
Foraging ............................................................................................................................................ 23
Diet selection..................................................................................................................................... 24
Methodological remarks..................................................................................................................... 25
Data analysis and statistical treatment............................................................................................... 26
Physiological methods in Wildlife Research.......................................................................................... 28
Ranging behaviour, time and activity budgets ....................................................................................... 29
Radiotelemetry and satellite tracking................................................................................................. 29
Ranging / Spacing behaviour............................................................................................................. 30
Methodologies for measuring population movements – depends on the research questions............. 30
Social behaviour, group dynamics and sociobiology ............................................................................. 31
A note on measuring group size........................................................................................................ 31
Life history variation........................................................................................................................... 32
Functional morphology and morphometrics........................................................................................... 33
Skull measurements .......................................................................................................................... 33
Genetic variation ................................................................................................................................... 33
PRESENT RESEARCH ON BEARDED PIGS..........................................................................................35
Borneo .................................................................................................................................................. 35
Peninsular Malaysia.............................................................................................................................. 36
Sumatra ................................................................................................................................................ 36
Range-wide........................................................................................................................................... 36
RESEARCH SUGGESTIONS...................................................................................................................38

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Bearded pig ecology and morphology................................................................................................38
Possible research questions...........................................................................................................38
Migration ............................................................................................................................................39
Possible research questions...........................................................................................................39
Forest – pig interaction.......................................................................................................................40
Possible research questions...........................................................................................................40
Pig – human interaction .....................................................................................................................40
Possible research questions...........................................................................................................40
Possible research methodologies ......................................................................................................40
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................... 42
OTHER RELEVANT REFERENCES, NOT USED IN THIS REVIEW....................................................... 48
APPENDIX 1. TRANSCRIPT OF THE ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS, 24 – 29 MAY
2000......................................................................................................................................................... 49
First Session Bearded Pig Conference: Wednesday, May 24................................................................49
Second Session Bearded Pig Conference: Thursday May 25 ...............................................................57
Third Session Bearded Pig Conference: Wednesday, May 29 ..............................................................64

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Figure 1. Long Uli, Kayan-Mentarang
National Park. East Kalimantan. Photo
by Tantyo Bangun for WWF Germany.
The swine with contrite heart allow'd,
His shape and beauty made him proud:
In diet was perhaps too nice,
But gluttony was ne'er his vice:
In ev'ry turn of life content,
And meekly took what fortune sent:
Inquire through all the parish round,
A better neighbour ne'er was found:
His vigilance might some displease;
'Tis true he hated sloth like peas.
Jonathan Swift, The Beasts' Confession
(1738). Line 37 – 46

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SUMMARY
The bearded pig (Sus barbatus) occurs on Borneo, Sumatra, the Philippine island of Palawan and
neighbouring islands, and in Peninsular Malaysia. The Bornean subspecies (S. b. barbatus) is still
widespread but declining in numbers, while the species is rare elsewhere (Caldecott et al., 1993). On
Borneo, the species is the most important source for wild meat, and a forest product with high economic
value for rural communities. A decline in the number of pigs could result in higher hunting pressure on
other (protected) species such as Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and monkeys (Bennett et al., 1996;
Caldecott, 1988; Puri, 1997; D. Whittington, in litt. July 1999).
Bearded pigs are known to migrate in Borneo, possibly over considerable distances (Caldecott, 1988;
1991b; Caldecott and Caldecott, 1985; Pfeffer, 1959; Pfeffer and Caldecott, 1986), and they are
considered to be potential ecosystem engineers, playing important roles as seed dispersers, seed
predators, and agents of physical disturbance (Curran et al., 1999; Ickes and DeWalt, 1999).
Understanding the underlying forces of pig behaviour and their role in forest ecosystems will have
implications for developing successful and long-term approaches to sustainable management and
protection of the forests of Borneo. For this, a research programme will need to be set up that addresses
the ecology of the species and the relationships between the species and its human and non-human
environment.
This report provides an overview of the literature on bearded pigs and a compilation of potentially useful
methodologies for bearded pig research. Furthermore, it outlines ideas for a multidisciplinary research
programme on the bearded pig and the relationships with its human and non-human environment.
Considerable funding will be required for research addressing issues such as migration, hunting, the
impact of pigs on forest regeneration, the cultural role of pigs, and other issues such as morphology and
genetics. The ultimate aim of this report is to bring together research groups and other organizations in
the hope that a joint and wide-ranging approach will lead to successful research. This should eventually
result in the long-term survival of bearded pigs, and the intricate relationships between pigs, their forested
environment and the humans with whom they share their habitat.
‘Suicide’ noun 1. the killing of a pig [21st Century: < L sus swine + caedere to slay]; not to be
confused with, although possibly leading to ‘Suicide’ noun 2. the self-inflicted ruin of one’s
own prospects or interests [17th Century: < NL suicidium, < L sui of oneself + -cidium, <
caedere to kill]

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MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP (24 – 29 May 2000)
In three electronic workshop sessions, several issues concerning bearded pig ecology and the
relationships between bearded pigs and their human and non-human environment were discussed. From
the available information we concluded that bearded pigs play an important role in the overall ecological
balance of Borneo’s tropical rainforest, as they are likely to influence forest dynamics through seed
predation. Also bearded pigs are of great nutritional and economic benefit to many of Borneo’s peoples. It
is unknown, however, how the species is affected by ongoing deforestation and habitat fragmentation,
and high levels of hunting, and some thought was given to an ‘after the pigs’ scenario.
The group of participants agreed that to investigate the large-scale phenomena associated with bearded
pigs on Borneo, a Borneo-wide research program was required, with research groups from all over the
island involved in the monitoring of pigs, forest, environmental, and human factors. This umbrella program
would at least provide the infrastructure for a basic monitoring program. The focus of this research would
initially be on bearded pig migration and the driving forces behind this, as the movement and
concentration of bearded pig populations are expected to be of considerable ecological, socio-economical
and cultural importance. The participants agreed that a tagging program would be the initial line of attack,
either by low tech. tags and a reimbursement scheme, or by radio-frequency tags (or a combination of
these).
Funding for such an umbrella project would be considerable and various possible donors were discussed.
Also, it was noted that careful planning and open communication were required to prevent the program
from becoming overly bureaucratic and very difficult to manage.
The immediate practical recommendations were:
1. to write a pre-proposal for the umbrella project
2. get feedback from the group on the pre-proposal and background document
3. the participants will individually distribute the pre-proposal to potential donors
4. possible organize a follow-up electronic session sometime in July/August 2000 to discuss progress
and exchange information.
5. plan a meeting for late September/early October 2000 in Bogor or Jakarta where further details will be
discussed, especially methodological issues and funding.

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DESCRIPTION AND TAXONOMY
Description
Payne et al. (1985) provide the following description of bearded pigs in Borneo:
1. Measurements of adult males: Head-body length: 1.37 – 1.52 m.; Tail: 0.23 – 0.26 m.; Hindfoot: -0.28
– 0.32
2. Measurements of adult females: Head-body length: 1.22 – 1.48 m.; Tail: 0.17 – 0.25 m.; Hindfoot: -
0.27 – 0.29
3. Weight in both sexes usually between 57 and 83 kilograms, or up to 120 kilograms or more when fat.
4. Height at shoulder in both sexes is about 90 cm.
The coloration of bearded pigs varies from blackish in young pigs, to a paler reddish brown, yellow-grey or
almost buffy white in adults. The colour of mud wallows also affects the apparent colour of pigs. Piglets of
S. barbatus are longitudinally stripes, black-brown and whitish to fawn (Groves, 1981), and Mohr (1960, in
Groves, 1981) reports that these stripes are quite gone before 6 months. The head is typically long with a
‘beard’ of bristles along the upper jaw and a fleshy lump above each size of the mouth with upward
pointing bristles. Females have 5 pairs of mammae. Foot prints are more rounded and symmetric than
those of deer, with imprints of the dew toe even apparent on hard ground (Payne et al., 1985). Van Strien
(1983) points out that the prints of bearded pigs are similar to the other pig species and, although on
average possibly slightly larger, probably indistinguishable from them.
Taxonomy and Phylogeny
The phylogeny of the pig species in SE Asia is yet to be resolved. An ancestral pig species possibly
occurred in Borneo as early as the Eocene (Stromer, 1931), although the identification and dating of the
fossil finds are doubtful. Based on mtDNA sequencing Randi et al. (1996) estimated a time of origin of the
Sulawesi babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) of 10 to 19 million years ago (Ma), which could indicate that a
pig species ancestral to the babirusa roamed through Asia and had possibly crossed to Sulawesi. The
presence of two more genera of suids in Sulawesi (Celebochoerus and Sus), which must have split off
from the main stock of Suidae at different times (Hooijer, 1975) is indicative of several invasions of
ancestral suid types to Sulawesi over a great length of time. In Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java an
ancestral species gave rise to the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) and to the warty pig (Sus verrucosus) some
2-5 Ma (Randi et al., 1996). The Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa) of Sumatra and Java probably entered
the region during the Pleistocene.
Three subspecies of bearded pig are presently recognized, i.e. the nominate subspecies from Borneo, S.
barbatus barbatus, the subspecies from Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, S. b. oi, and the subspecies
occurring on Palawan and the neighbouring islands, S. b. ahoenobarbus (Caldecott, et al., 1993). The
following synonyms exists for the subspecies (Groves, 1981)

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Sus barbatus barbatus Müller, 1838
1838 Sus barbatus Müller, Tijdschr. nat. geschied. physiol. 5: 149.
1885 Sus longirostris Nehring, Zool. Anz. 8: 347
1906 Sus gargantua Miller, Proc. USNM 30: 743
Sus barbatus oi Miller, 1902
1902 Sus oi Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. wash. 15: 51
1921 Sus branti Kloss, J. Straits Branch R. As. Soc. 88: 150
1937 Sus barbatus edmondi Sody, Temminckia 2: 212
1939 Sus verrucosus sumatranus Kelm, Zool. Anz. 125: 220
Banks (1931) and Chasen (1940) report that the British Museum has an undoubted skull of the Javan wart
hog (S. verrucosus), taken by Wallace in the upper Sadong in Sarawak, but they both considered the
specimen to be mislabelled. Kelm (1939) reports on further S. verrucosus from Borneo, i.e. two lower jaws
described by Spillner (1894, in Kelm, 1939), while he also mentions a S. verrucosus skull from Lampung.
This Sumatran skull was later described by Schwarz (1940, in Groves, 1981) as a short-faced variant of
S. barbatus. Another mythical Bornean pig is S. longirostris Nehring, resting on a single specimen killed
by Grabowski near the Kuala Kapuas; this specimen has since been relegated to an ordinary bearded pig
(Banks, 1931). Lyon (1911) and Tucker (1931) report on another pig species on Borneo, S. gargantua,
with a skull some three inches longer than any known barbatus skull, but there is a good deal of mystery
about the animal itself, especially as the only other known specimen is but doubtfully recorded from Java
(Banks, 1931).
Finally, similar to many other species, the bearded pig, is known under different vernacular names on
Borneo, which the natives consider to be each different ‘species’. Kohlbrugge (1895) reports on some of
these from the area of present-day South Kalimantan province, i.e. the Babi poetih (the largest species,
equivalent to Sus barbatus), Babi hirang (a black species), Babi haboek (reddish), and Babi sagar (a
black dwarf pig). Yasuma (1994) lists 30 vernacular names for bearded pig used by tribal groups in East
Kalimantan and Sabah, varying from the Indonesian and Malay babi hutan and similar names, to names
such as Asih, used by the Murut in Sabah, Ewoa, used by the Modang group near the Sungai Belayan in
East Kalimantan, Jani used by some Iban (other use Babui), and Wawoi used by the Ma-anyan of
southern East Kalimantan.
For related literature see:
1. Groves (1997) – on the taxonomy of wild pigs (including Sus barbatus) of the Philippines

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DISTRIBUTION
The bearded pig occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and in Palawan and neighbouring
islands in the west Philippines. In Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra its distribution is now limited to a
relatively small part of their presumed pre-historic range, while in Borneo the species is still widespread
but declining (Caldecott et al., 1993). Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra are of primary interest to
this review and the distribution in the Philippines is not described here; for this refer to Caldecott et al.
(1993).
Borneo
Endert (1925, in Nederlandsch Indische Vereeniging tot Natuurbescherming (NIVN), 1939) found that
south of the Mahakam Lakes in, what is now, East Kalimantan, bearded pigs had been all but
exterminated by intensive hunting with blowpipes. More recently, this is becoming reality for more areas in
Borneo, where through over-hunting and logging and conversion of forests bearded pig populations may
are decline (see Bennett et al., 1996; 2000). Also, Simons (1987) reported declining pig populations in the
Gunung Niut Nature Reserve in West Kalimantan. Still, the species is widely distributed over the entire
island of Borneo. Apart from the areas shown on the distribution map in Caldecott et al. (1993), bearded
pigs are reported to occur in the following conservation areas, and the species appears to be more widely
distributed than suggested by Caldecott et al. (1993): 1. Kendawangan Nature Reserve (now degazetted)
(Noor and Hanafia, 1994); 2. Gunung Palung National Park (Curran and Leighton, 2000; Curran and
Webb, 2000); 3. Tanjung Putting National Park (http://users.bart.nl/~edcolijn/Kalimantan.html); 4. Danau
Sentarum Wildlife Reserve (Jeanes, 1997); 5. S. Sebangau peat swamp area (Central Kalimantan) (Page
et al., 1997).
In 1939, the Nederlandsch Indische Vereeniging tot Natuurbescherming (NIVN) reported island
populations of bearded pigs on Pulau (Pulau = island hereafter abbreviated as P.) Tarakan, P. ‘Boenjoe’,
and P. Laut, while Medway (1977) reports the species on P. Lamukotan, P. Penata, P. Kebun in the
Burung group of northern West Kalimantan (although already exterminated on the last two by 1906), P.
Pelapis and P. Panebangan, in the Karimata group, P. Juanata, off Sukadana and P. Sebuku, South
Kalimantan. The presence status of these island populations is unknown.
Sumatra
The archaeological evidence suggests that the bearded pig was fairly plentiful and widespread in the
Malaysian Peninsula and Sumatra about 1,500 to 2,000 years ago (Gibson-Hill, 1950 in Caldecott et al.,
1993), and Whitten et al. (1987) suggest that palaeolithic people commonly caught bearded pigs.
Boden Kloss (1905) mentions the presence of bearded pig on Batam island, and Lyon (1908) reports their
presence from Rupat Island. Silvius et al. (1986) mention the occurrence of bearded pigs in the following
three Sumatran wetland sites: Berbak (Jambi Province), Sungai Lalan and Padang Sugihan (both South

6
Sumatra Province), while Groves (1981) also reports their occurrence in Lampung Province. The
Indonesian Nature Conservation Database (http://users.bart.nl/~edcolijn/sumatra.html) adds the
Sembilang Wildlife Reserve in South Sumatra to the list of protected sites were bearded pigs occur. A
field survey by Blouch (1984) didn’t find any evidence for bearded pig in the southern quarter of Sumatra,
but for one area, i.e. Lebong Hitam across the straits from Bangka Island. It appears that the latter study
underestimated the southern distribution range of bearded pig in Sumatra, because very recently records
of bearded pigs were reported from the Bukit Barisan National Park in the most southern tip of Sumatra,
where they were photographed (see Figure 1) (M. Kinnaird, WCS-Indonesia, personal communication,
2000). In Central Sumatra bearded pigs were nowhere abundant in 1984, although local people in several
areas reported occasional large travelling herds (Blouch, unpubl. in Caldecott et al., 1993). Such indirect
information was also recently reported by R. Blouch (pers. comm., 17 May 2000). He reported, based on
an interview with a local hunter, that groups of "hundreds" of S. barbatus oi that travel through Kerinci
Seblat N.P. south of Sungai Penuh. The informant told that they travel the length of the Barisan
Mountains from Aceh to Lampung and back. Apparently, May is the time of the year when they travel
through Kerinci Seblat. Blouch (in litt., 15 April 2000), further reports that Sumatran bearded pigs occur in
both the lowlands and the mountains, but is it not clear up to what altitude. It seems to be more of a
primary forest animal, with Sus scrofa using the secondary and disturbed forest, and doing most of the
crop raiding. Finally, there are no recent records of bearded pig from either northern Sumatra or islands
of the east coast of Sumatra like P. Tebingtinggi, P. Ransang, P. Bintang, P. Kundur, P. Durian Besar, P.
Rempang and P. Galang) where bearded pigs are known to have occurred (Groves, 1981). The same can
be said for island populations of bearded pig reported by Chasen (1940) on the islands of Batam, P.
Sauh, P. Ungar and in the Riau archipelago.
Figure 1. Possible bearded
pig (Sus spp.) photographed
by camera trap in Bukit
Barisan National Park
(photo by WCS-Indonesia).
For related literature see:
1. Sody (1940) – on 3 (?) pig species in Sumatra

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Peninsular Malaysia
Information on this part of the bearded pig’s distribution range is limited. Taman Negara National Park in
central northeast Peninsular Malaysia and a second population in central south Peninsular Malaysia
appear to be strongholds for bearded pigs (Caldecott et al., 1993). Furthermore, Groves (1981) reports
the area of the Johore/Pahang border and the Bernam swamp district to be bearded pig areas. Earlier this
century, Kempe (1948) reported bearded pigs in the Pekan district of Pahang, the Kota Tinggi district of
Johore and the Batang Padang district of Perak. Two other areas, Bukit Chipung in Perlis and Gua Madu
in Kelantan, were the localities of neolithic finds of bearded pigs, indicating that the species once occurred
there.
Figure 2. Approximate distribution of bearded pig (excluding the Philippines), based on distribution
records and forest cover (after MacKinnon, 1997)

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ECOLOGY
Habitat
Bearded pigs are well-adapted species to the extensive dipterocarp forest of Borneo and Sumatra. This
tree family if often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and is characterized by synchronized flowering
and mast-fruiting behaviour (Janzen, 1974, in Caldecott, 1991a). Bearded pigs also make extensive use
of riverbank communities, where they root among herbs and look for earthworms (Mackinnon et al., 1996;
personal observation). Banks (1949) describes a further wide range of habitats used by bearded pigs:
estuarine swamps, secondary and all kinds of old jungle, beaches, riverbanks, all kinds of plantations,
clearings and also the outskirts of towns.
Keystone habitats: peat swamp, freshwater swamp and montane forests provide continual asynchronous
fruiting resources for maintenance during non-mast times. Pigs are found throughout all forest habitat or
vegetation types in West Kalimantan. Usually one or two large boars can be found in alluvial swamps year
round. Sows and piglets begin arriving during the peak or tail of the fruiting in a dipterocarp mast. In West
Kalimantan, they move in from both the mountains and the swamps indicating they are scattered across
the region during non-mast times. (L. Curran, in litt., 30 May 2000).
Migratory behaviour and feeding ecology
Caldecott (1991) provides a list of food plants of bearded pigs from his study area in Sarawak. Besides
these bearded pig consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle
eggs, and carrion (Caldecott, 1988; 1991; Caldecott and Caldecott, 1985). Fruit supply is believed to have
particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition and reproduction, with the other foods as
they normally occur in the forest assumed to allow only slow growth at best. The oil-rich seeds of
members of the tree families Fagaceae and Dipterocarpaceae are thought to be especially important
(Caldecott, 1988; Caldecott, 1991; Caldecott and Caldecott, 1985). Curran (in litt., 30 May 2000) has a full
list of observations of feeding on seeds and fallen fruit across seven ecosystems/forest types at Gunung
Palung. It is almost easier to state what they will not eat – they are pigs! During the dipterocarp mast the
major of the seed in the diet is dipterocarps, although they can and will eat other species available.
Dipterocarps are preferred. They won’t eat Neesia in the Bombaceae and Ternstroemia magnifica
(Theaceae) etc. Oaks esp. Castinopsis spp. Lithocarpus and Quercus are favorite foods! They are
almost solely seed predators although a few figs (e.g. Ficus dubia), melastomes and other tiny, hard
testas can pass through their guts and germinate.
Under favourable conditions bearded pigs can gain a lot of weight, with body weights reaching as much
200 kilograms (Pfeffer, 1959; Pfeffer and Caldecott, 1986). It is interesting to note that Payne et al. 1985)
limit maximum weight to 120 kilograms, while their maximum body lengths are also considerably less than

9
for instance the total length of a male bearded pig described by Pfeffer (1959) and Pfeffer and Caldecott
(1986): 208 cm.
Bearded pigs, at least those on Borneo, are subjected to irregular migrations, seeming to follow the fruit
when in season so that one year a particular spot may swarm with them but not be troubled again for
many years after. (Banks, 1931). Especially the ripening of illipe nuts Shorea in Sarawak and East
Kalimantan, appears to be significantly correlated with pig migrations (Caldecott, 1988; Caldecott and
Caldecott, 1985; Pfeffer, 1959; Pfeffer and Caldecott, 1986). Banks (1949) was among the first to report
on the lemming-like mass migrations of bearded pig, which he considered to be quite distinct from the
annual local movement damaging rice fields, ‘since food is not main purpose of these changes.’ Pfeffer
(1959) and Pfeffer and Caldecott (1986) also thought that these eruptions were not food related as they
had seen very fat pigs among those that migrated. Furthermore, Pfeffer (1959) indicated the somewhat
forced, lemming-like aspects of these large scale pig migrations by pointing out that he once saw a pig
whose hind quarters were paralyzed and which pulled itself forward by its front legs to follow its
conspecifics. Pfeffer (1959) was probably the first scientist to distinguish between sedentary and
migratory populations; the latter not to be confused with extreme eruptions in pig numbers which occur
every so many years.
In, Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, pigs will arrive or congregate when even a few
mangos, Tetramyrista glabra (in peat swamp) or other resources are available. They begin their large-
scale movements after fruit is exhausted in this region and appear to move independently to areas with
high density of available food. Year-round, a few sightings occur and under a fruiting oak a few adults can
appear and stay until food is exhausted. Their movements appear to coincide with fruit/seed availability.
Have a large fruiting Litsea ( Lauraceae) and a few pigs will be snarfing the fallen fruit below the crowns.
They can arrive in an asynchronously fruiting dipterocarp patch and may conduct W-E movements if
regions are out of synchrony.
Daily movements
The Nederlandsch Indische Vereeniging tot Natuurbescherming (NIVN) (1939) mentioned that in Berau
daily bearded pig migrations were recorded to occur between the coastal areas and the higher mountains
and back. At night pigs would look for food in the Nipa forests and coconut gardens, while during the day
they would return to the cooler areas at higher altitudes.
Yearly migrations
Borneo
Bearded pigs in Borneo show large-scale seasonal migrations; huge herds of thousands of pigs ford rivers
and cover great expanses of forest, following the fruiting seasons of favoured food trees (MacKinnon et al.,
1996). Yearly bearded pig movements were reported by the NIVN (1939) who thought that bearded pigs

10
made such journeys to look for areas of ripe fruit. Also pigs were thought to move to drier areas at the start
of the rainy season (NIVN, 1939).
Pfeffer (1959) and Pfeffer and Caldecott (1986) considered that in Pfeffer’s study area in Long Punjungan
(East Kalimantan) there were two more or less defined annual migrations, one in August-September and
one in December-January. The animals came from the basins of the upper Sesayap, upper Sembaking and
Malinau Rivers and moved en masse to the south. Another route runs more to the west from the same
source area, via the upper Bahau, the upper Kayan, towards the Iwan River and further south to the Boh
River. A third route ran from Malinau, across the Bahau (between the mouth of the Punjungan River and the
junction of the Kayan and Bahau Rivers) and then on to the upper Kayan towards the Brem-Brem rapids.
Some animals coming from the same source area crossed the Kayan River between Long Peso and
Tanjung Selor and moved into the forest complex between the Kayan and Kelai Rivers. Finally, part of the
animals crossed the Kayan Rivers upstream from Long Peliban and directed themselves towards the upper
Kelai area.
Dove (1993) describes yearly bearded pig migrations in his study site in the upper Kapuas area in West
Kalimantan. Here, bearded pigs were reported to migrate from the Kapuas Lakes area into Dove’s upriver
study site at the start of the fruiting season (October- December). At the end of the season (January -
March), these pigs returned downriver. A small number of pigs remained as a resident population.
Approximately every four years the bearded pigs in this region appear in very large numbers (see section
on “Eruptions”).
Puri (1992) describes pig migrations in his study site in East Kalimantan. Here pig migrations appear to
originate and end in the headwater areas of the Peliran, Bena, Melangga and Lurah Rivers. They follow an
east-west direction between the upper Lurah and Iwan Rivers to the mountains separating the Malinau and
Tubuh Rivers from the Lotong, Uli, Peliran and Aran Rivers. It is unknown of this population of pigs migrates
all the way to the lower Kayan areas around Long Peso, or as far as the upper Baram and Balui Rivers of
Sarawak (see map in Puri, 1992)
Apart from data in the literature a number of anecdotal accounts are provided below as recorded one of
the authors of this study. 1. In Long Bagun, Ulu Mahakam, every year in February pigs cross the river
between Lahang and Long Apari. Every family gets between 5 and 10 pigs each year. Pig were said to
always cross in one direction per year, but sometimes from north-east to south-west and sometimes the
other way around. The animals were always found to be in good (fat) condition). 2. In Batu Majang, Long
Bagun, Ulu Mahakam, pigs migrate from the east to the west side of the S. Mahakam sometime during
each year. This migration lasts for about one month, and only consists of grown-up pigs (no juveniles).
From west to east, the migration lasts for a shorter period (± 1/2 month), and there are a lot of young pigs.
There is sometimes a period of almost a year between these two events. When the pigs swim across,
usually the big males come first, followed by the females and young. 3. In the Batu Ampar area, S. of
Pontianak, pigs can be seen to cross the rivers and bays about twice a year in groups of up to 100
animals (E. Meijaard, unpublished information).

11
Peninsular Malaysia
Medway (1977) reports that also in Peninsular Malaysia such annual migrations of large herds of pigs
occurred. Hislop (1949; 1955) describes these in more detail:
‘In south-west Johore, notable in the Kluang and Kahang districts, they arrive from June
onwards, stay for a month or two, and have all gone by the end of November. They appear
in Pekan district between November and April, and I have it on record that a number were
shot towards the end of February 1953, while raiding padi crops on the Pekan-Nenasi
road…..Those who know most about the occurrence of the bearded pig in Malaya are,
naturally, the Aborigines of south-east Pahang, and they all state that they appear
generally once of year….About the middle of July 1953, a large cohort of these pigs
appeared near Kampung Denai on the Endau River, en route from Pahang to
Johore…..These pigs also exist on the western side of the Peninsula in the Sungei Bernam
swamps, west of the main road, but there is no record of migrations or the appearance of
large numbers if animals in that area.’
Sumatra
Van Balen (no year of publication known) described annual bearded pig migrations for Sumatra.
According to his information, in early May bearded pigs become abundant in Indragiri. They arrive in dry
season in countless numbers from Jambi and cross the Gangsal and Tjenako Rivers. Another migratory
route was described by Volz (in van Balen, no year of publication known): Between November and
January there is a general movement of bearded pigs from the coast to inland forests of Sumatra and
then back between February and April. The reason for this was thought to the ripening of certain fruits
inland, while also during the wet season the coastal areas would become too swampy. This seasonal
migration pattern was also observed by Blouch (1984) who found that bearded pigs fled the inundated
coastal lowlands during the wet season.

12
Figure 3. Annual migration routes of bearded pigs (thick black lines), as described in text.
Eruptions
Pfeffer (1959) and Pfeffer and Caldecott (1986) indicated that sometimes the annual pig migrations
concerned extreme numbers of pigs, which are often remembered by local Dayaks as exceptional pig
years. They specifically mention December 1956 – January 1957 and also 1954. Banks (1949) described
two such events of large-scale pig movements. One occasion along the Baram River in October 1935 is
pictured as follows:
‘For five or six weeks, at points sixty to a hundred miles apart, moves a steady stream of
wild pigs, a few solitary, some family parties of seven or eight, many packs from fifteen to
thirty of forty, occasionally convoys estimated at two hundred, sufficiently large to deter the
natives from attack. Every ten minutes or quarter of an hour pigs pass by, a few large, old
individuals, many of medium size, none in very fat condition. Rice crops on route are utterly
destroyed but they do not deviate in search of others off line of march and food is not an
objective. Silent, not quarrelsome, almost furtive, intent on something, looking round little,
they push on undeterred by waiting natives, who club and spear them at river crossings
until weary of pork. Whence came the pigs, and where they go none know, over a narrow
front travelled this horde of pork, not to be turned from its path until exhaustion.’
Elsewhere, along the Batang Rejang River, between October 1935 and February 1936 pigs were
migrating as well, attracting over 800 Dayaks from down river. The District officer reported that well over

13
1500 pigs had been killed. In November, information was received that the great pig migration had
ceased; later in the month it recommenced. The migration of pigs across the Batang Rejang continued in
December, lasting for three months, unprecedented even in the memory of the oldest men (Banks, 1949).
Congregations of large herds of wild pigs in certain seasons in the Rejang delta were also mentioned by
Beccari (1904). Furthermore, Nieuwenhuis (1907: Vol. II, 293) reported on large herds of bearded pigs
that crossed through his study area near the S. Boh in April 1900, something that he didn’t see again on
subsequent visits to the area.
Large eruptions in pig numbers were further reported by Caldecott (1988; 1991), and Caldecott and
Caldecott (1985) who related these events to the occurrence of paired consecutive years of widespread
heavy mast-fruiting by dipterocarps. The 1983 bearded pig migration in Borneo was estimated to have
involved ‘perhaps a million pigs’ (McNeely and Wachtel: p. 172). Such exceptional mast-fruiting recently
occurred in 1953-54, 1958-59, 1982-83 and 1986-87, and in no other years since 1945. There may be
some correlation between such mast-fruiting events and severe droughts. Knapen (1997) recorded all
severe drought events on Borneo between 1747 and 1891 and it would be interesting to see whether
there is any reference in the literature to pig eruptions in the following periods: 1748-50, 1761-63, 1826-
26, 1848-49, 1853-55, 1866-69, 1876-78, 1883-85, and 1888-89.
Dove (1993) describes mass migrations in the upper Kapuas area in West Kalimantan. Here, at intervals
of four years on average, pigs migrate into the upper Kantu River area, sometimes from as far away as
the east bank of the Kapuas River – crossing this river in a single mass. Dove points out that, because the
timing of mast fruiting is not constant throughout Borneo, pigs may be following the height of the fruit
season from one part of the island to another. Slightly east of this area, on the west-side of the upper
Kapuas lakes, only one occasion of mass-pig gathering was reported to have occurred over the last 30
years. This happened when 30 pigs were found crossing one of the lakes (A. Erman, personal
communication, 22 May 2000).
For related literature see:
1. Whitmore (1990) – on mass flowering in western Malesia, recorded for 9 years in the 1970s, and the
relationship with seed-predator satiation and selection against trees that flower out of phase
Population states
Caldecott (1991) summarizes a range of population states of bearded pigs in Borneo and Malaya as
follows:
a) Dispersed, static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous
‘background’ food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only. Example:
typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes.
b) Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous ‘target’ food
sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movement only. Example: Koompassia –
Burseraceae forest in Malaya.

14
c) Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable
food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a
dynamic phenological mosaic. Short to medium-range movements. example: typical mixed
dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes.
d) Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable and discontinuous
target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range
movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply.
Examples: Dryobalanops aromatica association in Malaya; Dinochloa association in Sabah.
e) Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a
period sufficient for several litters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates
characteristic. Long range movements. Example: interior of Sarawak in 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987.
f) Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and
high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements. Example: starving herds reported
from Malaya and Borneo.
Swimming and bearded pigs
Bearded pigs have been reported to cross sea barriers by various authors. Lyon (1911), reporting on
Abbott’s mammal collecting work, mentions that twice while their schooner was anchored at Tanjong
Kramet droves of pigs attempted to swim across the Klumpang Bay in west Borneo. Wallace (1869), in
reference to Sir Charles Lyell, describes how wild pigs have been seen swimming across the arm of the
sea that separates Singapore from the Malay peninsular. Wallace continues to say that ‘we thus have
explained the curious fact that, of all the large mammals of the Indian region, pigs alone extend beyond
the Moluccas as and far as New Guinea, although it is somewhat curious that they have not found their
way to Australia.’ It is also interesting to note that S. barbatus occurs in the southwesternmost islands
(Sibutu and Tawaitawai) of the Sulu chain. There are numerous, apparently reliable, accounts of wild pigs
crossing the sea channel between Sabah and Sibutu (a distance of at least some 45 kilometres), where
they have been killed by fisherman (Caldecott et al., 1993). An officer in the Philippine navy reported
seeing some of these animals while on a tour of duty in c. 1970, and a large number of swimming animals
are reputed to have been used for target practice by a U.S. Navy battleship, which encountered them
while on patrol (R. Hilado, pers. comm. in Caldecott et al., 1993). Information of pigs crossing sea-barriers
was given by also Kempe (1948) who describes how a wild boar (S. scrofa) swam for 16 kilometres from
the Johor coast in Peninsular Malaysia to the island of Pulau Tinggi after being washed out to sea by a
freak rain storm. Furthermore, an anonymous source (1953) reported pigs swimming across the Kowie
harbour near Tawau in June and July. This harbour is a long inlet about 45 kilometres long and at least 9
kilometres across (Anonymous, 1953). Another bearded pig was found swimming in de middle of the
Sandakan Bay, apparently trying to swim from Pulau Bai to the Sandakan side of the bay, five kilometres
away.

15
Reproduction and Life History
The following reproductive data for bearded pig were published by Caldecott et al. (1993):
- Age at first pregnancy: 10 – 20 months
- Litter size: variable, depending on body size: 3 – 12.
- Gestation periods range from 90 to 120 days.
In any one area the rut coincides with synchronized flowering in the forest, with the timing being centred
on the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Caldecott et al. (1993) suggested that a
certain nutritional status may have to be attained by females before they become responsive by whatever
stimulus acts to trigger mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index of 1.5.
Curran (in litt., 30 May 2000) reports that during the onset of ENSO – droughts and flowering of
dipterocarps, the bearded pigs rut and constructed nests – primarily in the freshwater swamp and peat
swamp forests although they found nests in the understory of several habitats including logged over
forests and in belian cuts/secondary forest. The pigs seem to breed only in ENSO/masting periods in the
forest. Admittedly it was only a 14 yr. Study. Rutting was observed while dipterocarps were flowering and
the nest construction occurs primarily then although exceptions occur. 6-8 piglets are around the 20 kg
size when they start moving into lowland forest at Gunung Palung (see graphs Curran and Webb (2000)
and Curran and Leighton (2000)), they can also “double-clutch” in big fruiting years – just to confound
matters. Again, only a few masts were monitored over a 15 yr. period and those differed considerably at
the same site in pig breeding response.
For related literature see:
1. Sody (1941) - on reproductive seasons of Sus barbatus, S. scrofa, S. verrucosus, and Babyrousa
babyrussa.
Mortality
Curran (in litt., 30 May 2000) reports that in addition to hunting, (inc. humans as predators), piglets suffer
from a mysterious bloat and are eaten by the reticulated python and clouded leopard. Admittedly, there
are only a handful of observations. Large boars have nasty battles and get very skinny before the onset
of the next mast – so at the end of a 3-4 yr cycle they seem to die but we are not sure exactly why-
starvation, high risk and vulnerability to hunters. They tend to raid agricultural lands (and camps) out of
desperation and become more vulnerable to hunters then too.
Differences in ecology of bearded pigs and other pigs
Caldecott (1991) made an interesting comparison between bearded pigs and wild boar (S. scrofa) in a
natural habitat and in a disturbed one. He suggested that in a natural state the two species separate. The
bearded pig, which is a large-bodied, highly mobile, and low-biomass species, is adapted to less
productive dipterocarp forests and non-‘edge’ habitat, whereas wild boars, which are smaller, more

16
sedentary and a high-biomass species, are adapted to more productive ‘edge’ habitats. In disturbed
habitat in Malaya and Sumatra this means that wild boar replaces bearded pigs.
Forest-pig interaction
MacKinnon et al. (1996) suggest that bearded pigs may play a role in the dispersal of Rafflesia plants by
picking up the seeds on their hooves and unwittingly dispersing them while foraging. Pigs are also thought
to assist in dispersal of durian (Durio spp.) seeds by feeding on fallen fruit and dispersing the undigested
seeds through the forest, depositing them in their faeces.
It is interesting to note that according to Sellato (1986, in MacKinnon et al., 1996) the nomadic Penan
people in East Kalimantan actively disperse fruit seeds and plant fruit trees along their migration routes;
later, they return to harvest the fruit or to hunt wild pigs attracted by the fruit.
Dove (1993) hypothesised on forest – pig – human interactions. He suggested that on the one hand the
impact of mast fruiting on the pig population appears to be generally favourable for human society and
agriculture by keeping pig populations low and providing the pigs with an alternate food source to the
agricultural fields during some years. On the other hand, the presence of agricultural crops helps to
maintain a larger population of pigs between mast fruitings and, thus, presumably is disadvantageous for
the forest trees. These possible relationships in the tropical forest between cyclic biological and socio-
economic phenomena merit further study.
Curran and Webb (2000) and Curran and Leighton (2000) investigated mast-fruiting Dipterocarpaceae,
their seed and seedling survival and the vertebrate response to seed survival. Because of the disputed
role of vertebrate seed predators in causing and maintaining mast-fruiting behaviour, the response to
seed-eating vertebrates to this spatio-temporal variation in dipterocarp seed production was examined.
Timed with dipterocarp seed production in all mast events between March 1985 and January 1993,
nomadic vertebrates like S. barbatus increased their populations through both reproduction and regional
movement. In the 1986 minor mast, 21 dipterocarp species that produced 60,000 seeds/ha lost all
monitored viable seeds to a diversity of resident and nomadic vertebrate seed predators. However, in both
the 1987 and the 1991 mast events resident vertebrates destroyed only a small portion of the seed
production, and predation was only recorded in the tails of fruit fall distribution. Nomadic vertebrates
arrived late in the fruit fall period during both major mast events and thus, were able to destroy only seed
dispersed in the final one to three weeks of fruit fall. Seed escape, and thus regeneration, only occurred in
major mast events when all dipterocarp species across large areas participated. Although the patterns
generally conformed to the predator-satiation hypothesis, the observed mechanism for seed escape within
a mast fruiting events did not. Resident and nomadic vertebrate foraging and ranging patterns resulted in
dipterocarp seed ‘escape’ rather than local ‘swamping’ with copious seed production per se.
Ranging is directly linked to phenology.
Curran (in litt, 2000) reports that several of her recent papers point out that dipterocarp masting has to
occur across large spatial scales to satiate these large highly mobile seed predators. However, like U

17
boats in WWII, any particular stand may or may not escape. It depends on where pigs are during the
asynchronous times. They scatter across the landscape and when the mast hits begin to eat what’s
available then they move in search of food. All individuals begin to move with relatively simple decision
rules and eventually congregate in areas. The fate of dipterocarp regeneration depends on satiating pigs
primarily. However, forest degradation and fragmentation will alter routes and as we witnessed at GP
during the last mast, high densities of pigs may move into protected areas in search of food because
logging and other land use changes remove key seed sources. Curran (in litt., 2000) doesn’t agree with
the point that logging doesn’t affect their densities because only few trees per hectare are taken. All
canopy dipterocarps fruit around 50 dbh and higher, and that’s what the loggers are taking out. The
remaining seed trees cannot satiate weevils, orangutans, parakeets and squirrels – pre-dispersal
predators so little is left for the post-dispersal seed predators. Curran’s research group was working in
logged forest in 1990-92 during the mast and measured what was remaining for seed and seedling
production before, during and after the mast. Then experimentally added seeds in both logged and
protected forest to quantify this pattern. Pigs were not satiated over a 1km2 area when high densities of
seed were added. Dipterocarps are critical resources for pigs and they move from the montane and
swamp areas into the lowlands to feed on dipterocarps!
For related literature see:
1. Bowman and Panton (1991) – on the impact of banteng (Bos javanicus) and pigs (Sus scrofa) on
vegetation
2. Curran et al. (1999) - on the relationships between synchronous dipterocarp seed production,
satiation of seed predator like bearded pigs, logging, and seedling survival
3. Ickes and DeWalt (1999) – a short summary of research on the influence of pigs (Sus scrofa) on the
understory plant dynamics in a Malaysian rainforest, using exclosures
4. Ickes et al. (in press) – on the influence of pigs (Sus scrofa) on the understory plant dynamics in a
Malaysian rainforest, using exclosures
5. Ickes and DeWalt (in press) – on the density of pigs (Sus scrofa) in a Malaysian rainforest in
comparison with pig densities elsewhere
6. Leighton and Leighton (1983) – on the relationships between fruit availability and the diets and
densities of a wide range of fruit-eating vertebrates, including bearded pigs in a West Kalimantan
rainforest area
7. Peters (1996) – on the use, ecology and management potential of illipe nuts (Shorea spp.), including
a nut production graph from West Kalimantan ranging from 1968 – 1988 (showing peaks in 1973,
1976, 1983, and 1987)

18
THE USE AND CONSERVATION OF BEARDED PIGS
Habitat Loss
Forest destruction is the main threat to many species in Kalimantan (see Rijksen and Meijaard, 1999).
The total forest area of Borneo probably exceeded 400,000 km2 in the early 1990s (Collins et al. 1991,
INTAG [Directorate General of Forest Inventory and Land Use Planning, Ministry of Forestry, Government
of Indonesia] and FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations] 1996), although most of
this had already been fragmented through logging and human settlement. Apart from the 15% of the land
set aside for watershed protection and conservation, virtually all forest is earmarked for logging or
conversion to plantations or agricultural land. According to the World Bank, deforestation in Borneo
amounted to 7,000 km2/year in 1988 (Davis and Ackermann 1988). According to the Indonesian Land
Resources Development Centre an estimated 112,000 km2 in Kalimantan alone is under the impact of
slash-and-burn agriculture (Rijksen and Meijaard, 1999). Other data reveal that Kalimantan lost >100,000
km2 of forest between 1984 and 1990, almost 20% of its total land area, indicating even higher
deforestation rates (RePPProT [Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration] 1990). In
1996, 24% of the total state forest in Kalimantan (ironically consisting of 21% non-forest) was earmarked
for complete conversion to plantations or other non-forest land, 54% for normal or limited production
forest, and 14% for watershed protection (Ministry of Forestry and Food and Agricultural Organization
(MoF and FAO), 1996).
In Sabah and Sarawak, logging intensity increased considerably during the last decade (Repetto 1988,
Manser 1992). In Sabah, forest harvest almost tripled from 1,570 km2/year in 1980 to 4,263 km2/year in
1990. In Sarawak, forest harvest increased from 1,400 to 4,500 km2/year (Rijksen and Meijaard, 1999). In
the early 1980s, virtually all of Sabah's forests were under timber concessions, and since the early 1990s,
much of the logged-over forests have been converted into plantations (Rijksen and Meijaard, 1999). By
1986, 86% of forested land area of Sarawak was allocated to timber concessions. Unless logging is done
strictly according to regulations, and hunting in logging areas strictly controlled, this causes major declines
and even extinction of bearded pigs (Bennett and Gumal, in press).
The forest cover of Sumatra was estimated to be 20.8% of the total land area in 1996 (Sunderlin and
Resosudarmo, 1996), down from an estimated 48.8% in 1990 (Collins et al., 1991). It is expected that
Sumatra’s natural lowland forests will disappear in the next ten years, unless significant changes can be
brought about in forest management and the enforcement of forest laws (T. Whitten, personal
communication). Considering that possibly more than half of all logging is illegal (Jakarta Post, 27 January
2000; Indonesia-UK Tropical Forest Management Programme, 1999) and that logging in conservation
areas is rampant (Environmental Investigation Agency and Telapak, 1999) it can be doubted whether any
large forest areas can be maintained for the protection of significant numbers of bearded pigs.
Peninsular Malaysia has a long history of careful forest management, and conservation of its extremely
rich biological reserves is well developed. It is expected that some 15 – 20% of Peninsular Malaysia’s land

19
area will remain permanently forested (Collins et al., 1991). Considering that this will include valuable
bearded pig areas such as Taman Negara, the species may have a better survival chance than anywhere
else.
The effects of habitat loss
The clearance of forest for logging has led to a decline in many populations of wildlife, including bearded
pigs. They are mostly affected by loss of feeding and breeding grounds and by damage to food trees,
such as oaks and dipterocarps. Since bearded pigs range over large areas and make long distance
seasonal migrations to areas of mast fruiting, a decline in numbers due to logging may affect several rural
communities. In logged-over areas meat harvest decline, falling from about 54 kg per person per year to
about 18 kg within ten years. As numbers of pigs and deer decline, other species may suffer from
increased hunting pressure (MacKinnon et al., 1996).
In a discussion on the impact of East Kalimantan’s forest fires on wildlife (Mayer, 1996) found that in most
areas affected by fire there was no shortage of wild pigs and in areas where they were not hunted for
food, they became major pests. As normal sources of food for wildlife became scarce in the damaged
forests, where fruit, bark, roots and green vegetation had burned, pigs fled to cultivated areas and
riversides in search of food and water.
Disease
Knapen (1997) reports on a rinderpest epidemic that killed a large proportion of the cattle population of
Southeast Borneo between 1871 and 1872 before spreading to the bearded pig population, which it
affected in areas as far afield as the Upper Kahayan and Kapuas. In 1878, rinderpest struck once more,
again hitting the cattle population first and later killing pigs in large numbers. Another epidemic was
reported by Nieuwenhuis (1907, Vol. I, 196), who mentions that during his first journey through central
Borneo in 1894 pigs were rare, because both the wild and domestic population had been killed off by an
epidemic in central Borneo in 1888 and 1889. Feuilletau-de Bruyn (1933) further reports that in 1906,
’very many bearded pigs’ succumbed to a contagious disease in the Tabalung area (north-east Ulu
Sungai, S. Kalimantan).
Hunting
Humans have lived in Borneo for at least 40,000 years and have been hunting mammals such as bearded
pigs for at least 35,000 years (Medway, 1959). Holocene and pre-historic cave finds in Sabah (Harrison,
1998), Sarawak (Medway, 1964), and East Kalimantan (personal observation) indicate that bearded pig
has been the most commonly hunted Bornean mammal for at least the last 15,000 years. Hose (1926:
105) already noted that ‘Most of the peoples are, at least partially hunters, since they breed no animals,
except the pig and the fowl for the table’. He further states that wild pigs are frequently hunted with dogs,
spears or traps and snares. Caldecott (1988) estimated that hunters take an estimated annual harvest of
one million pigs, making wild meat of considerable economic significance in Sarawak. Bennett et al.

20
(2000) investigated hunting in Sarawak and Sabah in a total of sixteen study sites, differing in habitat,
ethnic groups, degree of access and types of hunting. They found that by far the most preferred species
of wild meat throughout Sarawak and Sabah was bearded pig, which comprised seventy-two percent of
the dressed weight of all animals hunted in Sarawak. The data further indicate that people of all ethnic
groups and lifestyles, apart from workers in plantations, hunt animals because they are there. This is
strongly reflected for bearded pigs for which a positive correlation was found between the proportion of
meals that contained wild meat and the abundance of pigs in the forest (rs = 0.8286; n = 6;p = 0.042). The
impact of hunting on bearded pig populations seems to be significant, with a significant correlation
between hunting pressure and animal density (rs = -0.5604; n = 13;p = 0.046). This pattern is so strong
that hunting pressure overrides the large effects of habitat variables and is the single main determinant of
animal density in an area. As hunting pressure increases, the density of all animal groups investigated,
including bearded pigs, decreases until, at high hunting pressure, all large animals are locally extirpated
(Bennett et al., 2000). Elsewhere, Bennett et al. (1996) report that one typical logging camp in Sarawak
killed as many as 880 pigs per year, mainly for food. Hunting in these camps was found wasteful, with
species being killed on sight even if the worker does not need that much meat. In one logging area, for
example, during a pig migration, people would kill an animal, take only the prime cuts of meat, leaving the
rest to rot, and kill another animal the next day.
Figure 4. Dead bearded
pig in boat. Photograph
by Tantyo Bangun for
WWF Germany.
In his study area in East Kalimantan, Puri (1992) reported similar trends in the use of pig meat as in the
study above in Sarawak and Sabah. He found that pigs were the dominant source of meat and fat in the
diets of the local Penan and Kenyah tribes, although fish may be an important source as well. Puri (1997)
reported that bearded pigs contributed 79.8% of all catches and 91% of all the edible meat yielded. Puri
(1997) estimated an average consumption of 133.6 kg of pig meat per person per year, which is in sharp
contrast with Caldecott’s (1988) estimate of 12 kg of pig meat per person per year. In another study,
conducted in 1979 and 1980 (total 243 recording days), Pierce Colfer and Soedjito (1996) recorded 134
meals consisting of wild pig in an East Kalimantan village inhabited by some 1,000 people. From their
data, it cannot be deduced how important wild pig was in the people’s diet, compared to other sources.

21
When there are no pigs (approximately four out of the twelve months of record keeping), fish provided the
majority of protein to both groups’ diets. Pigs also provide fat used for lamps and cooking oil (Puri, 1992).
Puri (1992) continues to state that the pig is unquestionably the most important animal, nutritionally and
culturally for both the Penan and Kenyah people in his study area. Also, he points out the importance of
hunting knowledge for Penan culture as so much of Penan knowledge is gained directly or indirectly
through the activities of hunting and learning to hunt. Hunting is eminent about its contribution to Penan
diet and the regularity of the practice. In short, hunting is central to the Penan way of life (Puri, 1997).
Puri (1994) describes an interesting Penan hunting technique known as nedok, in which the hunters
mimics the behaviour and sounds of pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina), to get close and even
attract bearded pigs. Pigs apparently recognise the macaques’ calls and movements and expect to find
discarded fruit on the ground underneath them.
For related literature see:
1. Caley and Ottley (1995) – on the effectiveness of hunting dogs for removing feral pigs in relation to
group size of pigs and their population density
2. Clayton et al. (1997) – on a spatial model for the hunting of two wild pig species in Sulawesi, including
factors such as distance from the end market, road conditions and surrounding vegetation types
Pigs as pests to agricultural crops
Bearded pigs are often considered as agricultural pests. They can be destructive in coconut plantations,
rooting up young seedlings to eat the heart of the palm (MacKinnon et al., 1996).
For related literature see:
1. Hone (1995) – on the spatial and temporal patterns of damage by vertebrate pests, especially feral
pigs, and its use for damage control
2. Liu et al. (1999) – on the modelling of the spatial and temporal impact of pigs on forest and oil palm
plantations.
Protection and management of bearded pig populations
Heinsius-Viruly and van Heurn (1935) proposed a number of measures for bearded pig protection in
Dutch Borneo. Among this were a ban on hunting of migrating bearded pigs by others than Dayak people;
a ban, also for Dayak people, to use shotguns in this hunt; the determination and implementation of
maximum hunting quota; and a prohibition for traders to make down-payments to Dayaks for obtaining pig
fat. These laws were only to apply to the migration season. NIVN (1939) didn’t consider such measures
necessary in the light of bearded pig abundance, nor did they consider it plausible that such measures
could ever be implemented.
Of importance to conservation biologists and nature reserve managers is the fact that the number of
species caught by indigenous hunters increased during time when pig numbers are low. When pigs are

22
migrating almost all subsistence activity directed at catching animals is suspended in favour of catching
pigs (Puri, 1992).
Caldecott et al. (1993) recommended that in Borneo, the dipterocarp forests should be deliberately
managed for a variety of non-wood as well as wood outputs, which will benefit bearded pigs if wild meat is
one of the outputs required. Such management clearly needs a change in resource-use thinking, from a
short-term destructive approach to a long-term sustainable use and conservation approach.
Bearded pigs are not protected in Indonesia and Malaysia. However, in Sarawak they are protected from
being traded under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998. This stipulates that all commercial sales of
mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians or any other recognisable part or derivates thereof are illegal. As
this is now rigorously enforced, it provides major protection to bearded pigs since wild meat trade in them
is illegal (L. Bennett, personal communication, 25/5/2000). Their protection status in the Philippines is
unknown to the authors.
For related literature see:
1. Waithman et al. (1999) – on the range expansion of introduced wild pigs (Sus scrofa) in California,
using hunter-surveys and GIS techniques

23
AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Resource selection, foraging ecology, nutrition, food and habitat selectivity
This chapter relies heavily on several comprehensive volumes and review papers: Manly et al. (1993, not
yet in ref. list), Stephens and Krebs (1986, not yet in ref. list), Hughes (1993, not yet in ref. list), Kacelnik
(1984, not yet in ref. list), and others. A detailed overview of methods and exemplary case studies will be
compiled for the final report of the workshop.
Optimality Approaches in General
Optimization models deal with possibilities for animals to maximise the pay-off in any given situation.
Optimization, as e.g. Krebs and McCleery (1984, not yet in ref. list) point out, does not mean "the best
conceivable alternative" but "the minimum subject to specified constraints". Some areas where
optimization models have been usefully applied are mentioned below. It is important to stress that
optimization is based on individual decision-making and decision-making potential probably must be
learned. In a more recent review of the optimality concept, Krebs and Houston (1989, not yet in ref. list)
point out the consequences of individual optimization for community and population ecology. They state
that terms such as stability, resilience or succession, which are used to describe processes in
ecosystems, are normally not compatible with the optimality concept, and thus with evolutionary ecology.
Consequently, in modern ecology these ideas are more and more disappearing. This again is of
relevance to applied ecology: If modern ecological paradigms deny stability, and postulate constant
dynamic changes, even in undisturbed habitats, we must aim to produce individuals as variable and with
as many decision-making potential, as possible!
Foraging
A model system for research into optimal foraging is a flock of birds searching for food. Each bird
constantly has to decide which items to select, whether to search here or fly to another spot, how to guard
against predators while searching, whether to defend a spot against conspecifics etc. Each alternative
has different costs and different benefits in terms of energy required vs. gained. Maximizing energy gain
can be different from minimizing cost.
Learning is very important in these circumstances (Kacelnik and Krebs, 1985, not yet in ref. list;
Shettleworth, 1984, not yet in ref. list). A synthesis of learning theory and behavioural ecology has
provided models of e.g. how fast a predator can react to a change of prey availability in a given feeding
area. This process has two steps - updating one's information and deciding based on this new
Information. Again the importance of developing methods for providing animals with such conditions to
"train" decision-making is obvious. On the other hand, a process such as habituation is also covered by

24
this approach - it simply saves energy if one stops to react to "irrelevant" stimuli - something that we must
keep in mind when raising animals for re-introduction. A lot of psychological studies of mechanisms of
learning, when viewed from this angle, loose their sterile laboratory outlook and can be interpreted as
studies on constraints.
Diet selection
Feeding is of great importance to most animals for most of the time. It balances the energy budget and
determines nutrient status, exercising a primary influence on scope for further activity, growth, survival,
reproduction, and correlated aspects of fitness (Hughes, 1993, not yet in ref. list).
Optimal foraging theories are a central topic in behavioural ecology. Foraging is composed of several
successive steps which all have to be optimized by an animal (Ganslosser, 1998, not yet in ref. list). This
includes searching for potential food, tracking (detecting) and recognizing food, selection of food among
alternative food items, and finally food intake by attacking, snatching, killing, biting off, chewing, and
digesting.
The dominant conceptual approach for understanding dietary patterns is optimal diet theory (ODT).
Classical ODT predicts that foragers attempt to maximize their net rate of energy intake (Sih, 1993, not
yet in ref. list). It further assumes that a forager can evaluate the profitability, in terms of yield per unit
handling time, of each food type encountered, and rank in relation to the profitability of other types. The
forager should always accept the most profitable food type and should accept successively less profitable
types only when encounter rates with higher-ranking types fall below critical levels. The score of diet
therefore should expand and contract according to the quality and availability of alternative foods. In other
words, when a highly profitable food type is abundant and available an animal should specialize on that.
However, energy might not be the most important dietary component; others such as proteins, minerals,
and vitamins may be of interest and can influence diet choice.
ODT makes predictions about active predator choice (the decision to attack some prey and reject others).
This, however, is only one component of preference. Preference may also depend on both prey and
predator behaviour (Sih, 1993, not yet in ref. list). Active choice by a predator can determine preferences,
but ecologically significant preferences can occur without any active predator choice. That is, a prey type
might be preferred simply because it is seen more often (e.g. it does not hide), or it is caught more easily
than other prey (e.g. it does not have effective means of escaping). Accordingly, preference can be
influenced by four components and these should be distinguished: encounter, attack, capture, and
consumption possibility (Sih, 1993).
The availability of various prey (categories) is not generally uniform, and use may change as availability
changes. Therefore, used food resources should be compared to available resources in order to reach
valid conclusions concerning diet selection. Selection is the process in which an animal chooses a
resource, and preference is the likelihood that a resource will be selected if offered on an equal basis with
others. The availability of a resource is defined as the quantity accessible to an animal (or population of
animals) during a fixed period. The utilization of a resource is the quantity of the resource utilized by an

25
animal (or population of animals) during that same period. Availability is distinguished from abundance by
defining the latter as the quantity of the resource in the environment (Manley et al., 1993, not yet in ref.
list).
For diet selection in large herbivores three major ways have been suggested (and tested for different
species):
1. Maximizing either rate, or amount of intake per time unit, either selecting for energy, nitrogen or
digestibility; all these maximizing efforts are subject to specific constraints, such as e.g. age-
/sextypical, cognitive, ecological or physiological constraints.
2. Selecting complimentary nutrients
3. Avoiding toxins
Most studies on large herbivores suggest that they follow the first of the three strategies. It will be
important for a species, such as the bearded pig, which is very adaptable, to know what the optimal trade-
off between different constraints would be, and how this influences individual or group decision-making.
This could be, for instance, with regards to habitat or feeding site selection under the influence of
predators, competitors and seasonal variations in food quality and quantity.
Studies determining these trade-offs, including work on nutritional physiology, interrelationships between
nutrition and reproduction, and between these aspects and physiological stress levels, are important to
understand migratory patterns. Both nutritional and endocrinological work can be performed non-
invasively by faecal/urine analysis, however it is important to attempt a system of individual tracking.
Methodological remarks
Several considerations have to be made before starting with projects in resource selection.
1. It has to be determined whether the resource in question consists of a number of discrete units (e.g.
individual food items) or of a continuous distribution that has, in order to allow statistical treatment, to
be "partitioned up" by the researcher, e.g. a habitat that must be divided by the researcher into grid
squares
2. It has to be decided if individual identification of animals is possible and desirable.
3. It has to be determined in advance how the resource in question is classified into categories (habitat
types, plant families, distances to resources etc.)
4. The level and scale, on which selection shall be studied, has to be decided (selection on the level of
individual fruiting trees, or stands of trees, or just species.
In combining these considerations, Manly et al. (1993, not yet in ref. list) describe three possible research
designs:

26
1. Measurements made at population level, no individual identification of animals is attempted. Used,
unused, and available resources are sampled, e.g. by line transects, random plots, or from aerial
photographs/maps. Animal locations in specific resource types are taken from line transects, pellets
or tracks on randomly located plots, etc., and used vs. unused resources compared to availability.
2. Individual animals are identified, their use of resources is individually measured, but the availability is
measured on population level. Individuals can be followed by radiotracking (see below), ear marks or
other ways of recognizing them, and each used resource unit is listed and later compared to
availability in the whole area as determined by method one. Or individuals are identified, their home
ranges determined, and each resource category in the individual’s home range compared to its
proportion in the whole area. Or individuals are regularly relocated, and the habitat/ resource type
they are found in is compared to the availability of this type. Or stomach/faecal contents are compared
to plant availability.
3. Individuals are sampled as above, but available, used, and/ or unused resources are collected for this
individual, e.g. by sampling them for this individual's home range. Or an animal is observed feeding
for a fixed period, and the type, size volume etc. of food taken is recorded, and then, after the animal
leaves details of the feeding site are recorded also for the feeding site. Or an individual's faecal or
stomach content is compared to availability of this resource in that animal's home range.
Some considerations also have to be made concerning sampling protocols. Whereas some resources can
be used (e.g. food) only once, others, e.g. habitat can be used repeatedly. This has to be taken into
account when designing statistical tests. Resources can be determined either by collecting information on
available (from random samples or exact censuses), used and/or unused resource units. Available and
unused resource units should, if possible be determined independently, e.g. availability from a census,
aerial survey, or random plot counts, unused from what is left after the animal leaves the feeding site.
Again the question of whether the samples are independent or paired is important for statistical treatment.
Data analysis and statistical treatment
Data analyses in resource selection and diet studies should always be carried out using non-parametric,
two-tailed tests (e.g. Sachs, 1992, not yet in ref. list; Engel, 1997, not yet in ref. list). For descriptive
statistics, the median and the mode can be used for measuring averages (Fowler and Cohen, 1994, not
yet in ref. list). The median is the middle observation in a set of observations, which have been ranked in
magnitude. The mode is the class in a frequency distribution, which contains more observations than any
other. There is always the problem with the independence of the data in diet analysis. Almost all deductive
statistical tests assume that samples are independent. However, some dependence of the samples
cannot be excluded, because e.g. faeces might belong to the same individual. This 'error' is called
pooling, when data of single individuals occur several times in the same sample. Nevertheless, Leger and
Didrichsons (1994, not yet in ref. list) suggested that data pooling does not lead to major errors if of all
individuals equivalent replications are used. Tests can be regarded as significant even in case of some

27
level of sample dependence, when there are very high levels of significance (J. Engel, 1997, pers.
comm.).
Chi-square analysis (2) can be used to test for seasonal variation within prey categories in terms of
frequency of occurrence data. Chi-square test should only be applied when no more than one-fifth of the
total number of expected frequencies was below 5, and none were below 1. Yates' correction can be
applied in the chi-square test when there was only one degree of freedom (Fowler and Cohen, 1994, not
yet in ref. list).
The Kendall rank-order correlation coefficient, -r (Zofel, 1992, not yet in ref. list; Engel, 1997, not yet in ref.
list), can be used to compare the proportions of food eaten, obtained by the various methods, i.e.
'frequency of occurrence', 'frequency of numbers' and 'proportion of biomass' (see above). The
correlation coefficient describes the degree of the relationship between two distributions, i.e. a correlation
coefficient of ± 1.0 refers to a perfect association, whereas a coefficient of 0 signifies no linear association
between the two distributions. This correlation coefficient can be used in order to investigate, if the overall
ranking of the various prey species in the diet was affected by the different methods applied.
The main objective of the present study is to identify food items and document the availability of those
food items. Therefore, available food items must be compared to consumed food in order to reach valid
conclusions concerning diet selection. The statistical analysis consists of the comparison between
availability and utilization of the main prey categories. By means of indices the selection (preference) or
avoidance of a food species as well as the degree of selection can be determined. For this analysis, the
'selection index' by Manley et al. (1993, not yet in ref. list) can be used, and in order to allow comparison
to results of other studies, the Jacobs index of preference (Jacobs, 1974, not yet in ref. list) can be
calculated as well. The indices can also be applied to the length frequency/biomass distributions, or other
size categories of the diet compared to that of the available parts.
The selection ratio Wi is calculated as:
WI = Oi
οi
in which Oi = proportion of food
species in used diet, and
οI = proportion of same food species
in available diet
Oi is the proportion of a prey species i (for i = 1, 2,..., 1) of the used (eaten) diet, 6i is the proportion of a
prey species of the available diet. A useful way of presenting selection ratios is with them standardized so
that they add up to 1. Bi gives the estimated probability that a randomly selected used food item will be of
a certain species if all food items are equally frequent in the original population of available food ( Manley
et al. 1993).
For each selection ratio, Wi confidence limits are constructed using a 99% confidence level. Concerning
Bonferroni inequality (cf. Y et al. 1993, not yet in ref. list), then, for example, there is a probability of 90%
that all ten limits of ten available species during a season include the population selection ratio. If the
confidence limits for the selection ratio Wi of a food item is below the value 1, this item is used significantly
less in proportion to its availability, i.e. there is significant selection against this species relative to the
amount available. Similarly, if the confidence interval for the selection ratio does not include the value 1,

28
i.e. the lower limit is above one, there is significant selection for this species above what would have been
expected by chance. Chi-square analysis can be applied on the data sets to test for significant selection
in the different seasons (cf. Manly et al., 1993, not yet in ref. list).
The Jacobs index D is suitable for comparisons between resources and for showing which resource is
preferred or avoided. But it is only reflecting selection for the particular circumstance observed and says
nothing about absolute preferences (cf. Manly et al., 1993, not yet in ref. list). The selection indices Wi
and Bi by Manly et al. (1993, not yet in ref. list) are avoiding this disadvantage. These indices give
biologically meaningful values, because they estimate the probability that a prey species would be the
next one selected if somehow it was possible to make each of the species equally available.
The Jacobs index of preference D is defined as:
D = r - p
r + p – 2rp
with r = proportion of resource in diet
p = proportion of resource available in
the environment
The index varies from -1 to +1, with -1 indicating total avoidance, + I is full preference, and 0 means that
this resource is neither preferred nor avoided.
For related literature see:
1. Corbett (1995) – on the relationships between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) density, pig (Sus scrofa)
density and the amount of pig in dingo (Canis familiaris) diet
2. Laman (1995) – on the relationships between Ficus stupenda seedling survival, the presence and
quality of substrate and herbivory
3. Hone and Martin (1998) – on the effects of dung decay and plot size on counts of dung pellets of feral
pigs (Sus scrofa) in south-eastern Australia
Physiological methods in Wildlife Research
To investigate the impact of food availability on pigs nutritional indices are useful tools. Most indices of
nutritional status are measures of fat or energy stores in the body. Fats or lipids are the primary mode of
storing energy in vertebrates and play an important role in reproduction, migration, hibernation, and
thermoregulation (Bookhout, 1994). Of importance to assessing the nutritional status of pigs the order of
fat catabolism in mammals on a declining nutritional plane is as follows: (1) subcutaneous fat over the
rump and saddle disappears; (2) abdominal cavity fat is used; and (3) bone marrow fat stores decline. As
fat stores are replenished, the opposite order is followed (Riney, 1955). The process is of course slightly
more complicated than indicated above, but the above sequence provides a useful general rule.
As the estimation of whole body fat in pigs is probably unworkable in the field, other indices will be
described here to estimate nutritional status. The most simple one would be to measure and weigh a pig
carcass, either eviscerated or not, which would provide a non-specific (body weight reflects both structural
seize and degree of fatness) index. By monitoring these weight trends over several years, the condition of

29
a population can be monitored, assuming that sample size is sufficient to allow for meaningful statistical
analysis.
Bandy et al. (1956) in a study of nutritional status of ungulates predicted body weights from heart girth
measurement and hind foot length and compared the ration of the two to estimate recent nutritional status
of deer. They reasoned that hind foot length, once attained, is not affected as much as is heart girth by
nutritional levels. If the ratio, body weight estimated from heart girth to body weight estimated from hind
foot length, was <1, the animal was supposedly in poor condition; if > 1, it was in a very good condition
(Bookhout, 1994).
Riney (1955) developed the kidney fat index (KFI) as an indicator of abdominal fat reserves. The KFI is
obtained by removing the kidney and its surrounding (perirenal) fat from the animal. The fat is cut exactly
at both ends of the kidney, perpendicular to the main kidney axis. Tissue that does not remain affixed to
the kidney is discarded. The ratio of the weight of the remaining fat to the weight of the kidney & 100 is
the kidney fat index. A study by Finger et al. (1981) found that KFI explained 75% of the variance in
precent body fat, indicating that KFI is a good predictor of total fat stores.
On of the most widely known and used indices of nutritional status in large mammals is the fat level in
bone marrow. Because marrow fat is believed to be the last fat resource depleted in a poorly nourished
animal, low bone marrow fat is indicative of poor nutrition over a relatively long period of time.
Traditionally, marrow in the middle third of the femur is examined (see illustration in Bookhout, 1994).
Usually, wet weight of a marrow sample is obtained after which the sample is dried in an oven at 60 –
65ºC. The dry weight divided by the wet weight gives a reliable estimate of percent fat. There are also
methods that do not require the use of an over (see Bookhout, 1994). Alternatively, to using femur
marrow, marrow from the mandibular cavity can also be used, which sometimes leads to more
distinguishable condition classes than does fat from the femur marrow tissues.
Ranging behaviour, time and activity budgets
Radiotelemetry and satellite tracking
The use of satellite-linked positioning systems is one of the techniques of investigating long distance
migration. For instance, the ARGOS System, a data-retrieving system mounted on NOAA-satellites has
been used to track a wide-range of species, including larger land mammals, like elephants (Verlinden and
Gavor, 1998), larger migratory birds (e.g. Blouin et al., 1999), marine mammals (e.g. McConnell et al.,
1998) and turtles (e.g. Lohmann et al., 1999). Azuma et al. (1994) tested the feasibility of using the
ARGOS System in a tropical rain forest area in East Kalimantan for the investigation of pig and bear
ranging. They used a 2 stationary transmitters, of the model MARS 90 (output 1 W.), and determined the
accuracy of the longitude and latitude readings after a 7-days period during which data from 57 satellite
passages were obtained. One transmitter was located in an open area and the other for 3 days in a
secondary forest and for 3 days in a tall marsh forest. The error in location readings did not vary much
between the different location, and a mean error of 268 meter was found. Such error would be acceptable

30
in studies of long-distance migration by bearded pigs. In a study of the behavioural effects of wearing a
3.4 kg satellite tracking collar on red deer (Cervus elaphus) it was found that a collar weighing 3.5 % of
the animal’s body mass can induce disturbances in behaviour (Blanc and Brelurut, 1997). At the other
side of the scale of collar weight, a 80 g satellite platform transmitter terminal (PTT) yielded locations to
within hundreds of meters, while a 30 g PTT could only give a position accuracy of 35 km (Britten et al.,
1999).
Ranging / Spacing behaviour
Another area for studies of decision-making, and also one which we have to consider carefully, is the
optimality approach to social organization: Decisions as to in what group size an animal should live, or
whether to defend a territory or not, are influenced by factors such as the density and renewability of food,
presence of predators and inter-specilic competitors and presence of shelter sites. Pulliam and Caraco
(1984, not yet in ref. list) have reviewed literature on group size, and describe group size variations with
the time of the day, or its relation to food abundance, disturbances by co-foragers, vigilance etc.
Depending on social structure the "optimal group size" for dominant and subordinate animals can be
different. Economical aspects of territoriality include quality, renewability and spatial distribution of the
resource in question. Studies on, for instance, hummingbirds or wagtails demonstrate a correlation
between energy gains and territorial defence. It only pays to expend energy for defence if there is enough
food for one, but not enough for all (Lott, 1991, not yet in ref. list).
Methodologies for measuring population movements – depends on the research questions
Curran (in litt., 2000) provides the following suggestions and comments on measuring population
movements. Most importantly, she thinks - depending on the research questions - we need to apply
nested (e.g., multiple approaches at first) sampling based on time, energy, cost, recovery and accuracy
required. Potential problems and unforeseen biases etc.:
• Tags – hunters and recovery- Care not to encourage hunting tagged individuals for reward but to
have killed individuals located and measured
• Loss of tags/implants whatever to hunters
• Lack of signal over sufficient periods – must be at least a 3-4 yr. Study to include mast-ENSO
• Lack of signal over sufficient spatial scale
• Ease in monitoring, identification without disruption
• Need to mix small-scale movements and accurate range assessment with long-term movement
across patches.
• Ability to pitfall trap sufficient individuals given X% loss, mortality and out of signal range…
• Cost of such mark and capture methods given % that can be monitored…

31
• Cost of monitoring and skill required to track in remote forest sites
• Statistical analyses- what resolution is needed to quantify the problem at hand. If we spend so
much, actually mark and capture and follow pigs but end up with only a few individuals with
different patterns can we actually address the questions with anything but anecdotal rigor?
• Personnel- do any of you want to do this for the next 5 years and devote considerable time,
energy and $$ to such a field program. Is this a priority given other work, research, questions with
a delayed payoff.
Cameras/routes and triggers – may work well once you identify set areas/mountain passes/river crossings
but given the scale of movements and lack of accurate baselines even this would be a hit or miss
arrangement. It would be necessary that this sampling is stratified randomly within selected areas to
obtain decent results given all the expense and effort.
Social behaviour, group dynamics and sociobiology
A note on measuring group size
One of the most frequently used, and often insufficiently defined, measurements in field studies is group
size. For this, at least two definitions have to be made in advance:
1. What is a group? Particularly in field studies in closed, or at least partly closed, habitats, it is often
hard to determine how far away the group members are. Also, groups, particularly when doing line
transects, or similar survey work, cannot be observed long enough to describe their social
relationships. Thus, a group is most often defined as consisting all individuals, within a certain radius,
or all individuals whose nearest neighbour is not further away than a given distance
Position in the group is often important for comparing feeding strategies, predator-risk etc, thus edge and
core positions should be defined beforehand (e.g. what to do if the group is not in some sort of cluster but
in a chain, who then has an edge, or a core position? Examples will be given in the detailed overview
2. what to do with raw data on group size? 'Calculating the average (= arithmetical means) group size
often is misleading, and not always statistically justified either. Jarman (1974, not yet in ref. list) has
discussed this question in detail, and suggests two more calculations: The modal group size, being
the group size category which is most frequently observed, and the typical group size, being the group
a typical animal most frequently finds itself in.

32
Typical Groupsize:
N
n12 + n22 + …. + nn2
with n1 …. nn = observed group sizes
N: number of observed individuals
Typical group size is calculated by dividing the sum of squares of all observed group sizes by number of
observed individuals. For example, let us assume that in one area we find groups of 4, 4, 6 and 6 pigs, in
the other of 2, 2, 2 and 14. Mean group size in both cases would be 5. However, typical group size in area
1 would be (42 + 42 + 62 + 62)/20 = 5.2, while in the other area typical group size would be (22 + 22 + 22 +
142)/20 = 10.4. Clearly typical animals in area 2 have more potential partners, be it for social contacts and
social experiences (learning, juvenile development!) or for reproduction, than in area 1.
Life history variation
Very briefly, decisions regarding life history can be characterized as decisions about the amount of
available energy allocated to growth vs. self-maintenance vs. reproduction - and these decisions have to
be made during the entire lifetime. Important areas of life-history research are age at sexual maturity,
litter-size and sex-ratio and amount of energy invested into parental care.. Many of these aspects used to
be summarized under the r/K - selection dichotomy. However, as Begon (1985, not yet in ref. list), or
Sibly and Calow (1985, not yet in ref. list) demonstrate, growth rate of juveniles and litter size are
influenced by many components, with density being only one of them. Several of these components are
constraints totally independent of demography or ecology, e.g. those depending on physiology, allometry,
or phylogenetic inertia. Age- and sex-specific strategies be it of dispersal, social organization (hold a
territory when fully mature, be a satellite when young etc.) or fecundity, have important consequences for
population dynamics and population composition. Individual variation in these areas, as demonstrated by
Smith and Kibly (1985, not yet in ref. list) has important consequences, by resulting in spatial
heterogeneity and thus stability.
For related literature see:
1. Frädrich (1974) – on the social behaviour of various pig species
2. Fraser
et al. (1995) – on the breeding biology of pigs, its theoretical background and the importance of
this for pig breeding
3. Altmann (1974) – not yet in ref. list
4. Altmann & Altmann (1977) – not yet in ref. list
5. Engel & Lamprecht (1977) – not yet in ref. list
6. Lehner (1996) – not yet in ref. list
7. Martin & Bateson (1998) – not yet in ref. list

33
Functional morphology and morphometrics
If a dead bearded pig is found, take the following measurements: 1. total length (cm), 2. tail length (cm),
and 3. hindfoot length (mm). If possible, total weight should also be determined. See, for instance, Payne
et al. (1985) or Yasuma (1994) for instructions on how to take these measurements. Another useful
characteristic to note is hair pattern and coat colour. In the Asian pig species, apart from S. scrofa, there
are two hair types intermixed: shorter part-agouti hairs and longer saturated ones. In S. barbatus the
agouti hairs vastly predominate, some specimens appearing to lack the saturated hair-type completely;
they are black with broad yellow bands or tips, the latter a result of wear, while the saturated hairs are
black (Groves, 1981). A brief description of hair types when pigs are investigated would be useful. Also
notes on beards, whorls and manes should be made.
Skull measurements
The following measurements, as described by Groves (1981; 1997), would be useful to take when pig
skulls are obtained as they can then be prepared to existing data sets on pig skull dimensions:
Greatest skull length (gl); 2. Condylo-basal length (cbl); 3. Bizygomatic breadth; 4. Occipital (crest)
breadth); 5 Occipital height; 6. Total skull height; 7. Nasal length; 8. Palate length; 9. M3 length; 10.
Greatest depth of zygomatic process of zygomatic arch; 11. Mesiodistal length of upper canine of
females; 12. diameter of inferior surface of lower canines of males; 13. diameter of posterior surface of
lower canines of males; 14. lower tooth row length from canine to third molar; 15. lengths of each
premolar and molar, upper and lower jaws; 16. maximum widths, molars and P4, upper and lower jaws;
17. lengths of the following diastemata: a. upper canine to first premolar, b. lower canine to first premolar,
c. first to second lower premolar.
Refer to Payne et al. (1985, p. 19 – 20), or to Yasuma (1994) for descriptions of skull parts and
measurements, or to more specific literature on the subject, e.g. (Duerst, 1926).
For related literature see:
1. Mudar (1986) – on the morphometrics of the subspecies of the bearded pig (not seen)
2. Lieberman (1994) – on the techniques of interpreting tooth cementum bands and the relationship with
seasonal variations in diet and growth rate
Genetic variation
Taberlet et al. (1999) describe the pros and cons of non-invasive genetic sampling. Here the source of
DNA can be shed hairs, faeces, or urine. Although, these techniques have recently become quite popular,
however, their use should be carefully considered as there are many problems with sample preservation,
DNA extraction and amplification, and contamination. A species such as S. barbatus would probably
better be sampled by relying on fresh tissue or blood samples. Questions that could potentially be

34
answered with genetic techniques include issues concerning kin selection, social structure, gene flow,
numbers of individuals, sex, and home ranges. It should be realized that to make any sense of genetic
variation within a population of bearded pigs it is very important to know more about genetic variation
within the species. As there will be people working on bearded pigs in various parts of its range (West and
East Kalimantan, and possibly Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia), it would be very useful if samples could
be collected from any of these locations.
When collecting samples from bearded pigs the following should be notes: 1. specimen number, 2. date of
collection, 3. location, 4. province, 5. GPS co-ordinates (if available), 6. How did you obtain the specimen?
(from hunters, market, found dead on the road, observed in the wild, etc.), 7. if applicable, photograph
numbers, 8. species, and 9. sex.
Genetic samples can either be taken from blood, tissue (preferably liver or muscle), faeces or hair.
Samples are best kept in tubes with lysis buffer, which contains Tris-HCL, EDTA, SDS, and NaCl, and
stored in a cool or frozen condition. If you intend to do genetic analysis abroad, an export permit is
required from LIPI (the Indonesian Institute for Sciences). A number of labs specialize in the analysis of
pig samples; for addresses contact Erik Meijaard.
Below are a number of protocols for collection of soft tissue, blood, or faecal matter for genetic analysis.
a) soft tissue sample
1. Collect two samples per animal; 2. use sterile plastic gloves; 3. cut some muscle tissue from animal
with sterile blade; 4. put tissue in 2 ml. tube of lysis buffer; 5. make sure that all pieces are immersed in
liquid; 6. mark the tubes (two for each animal, A + B); 7. store the tubes in a cool, dark place, if possible.
DO NOT OPEN AGAIN!; 8. throw away the gloves and surgical blades or clean and boil for 10 minutes
b) blood sample
1. Collect two samples per animal; 2. use plastic gloves; 3. take 1.5 ml of blood with a sterile syringe; 4.
insert blood into a 10 or 15 ml tube with lysis buffer; 5. invert the tube many times to thoroughly mix the
blood and liquid; 6. close the tube very tightly; 7. mark the tubes (two for each animal, A + B); 8. store the
tubes in a cool, dark place, if possible. DO NOT OPEN!; 9. throw away the gloves or clean and boil for 10
minutes.
c) scat sample
1. Use plastic gloves; 2. mix the scat as much as possible before taking a sample; 3. use a clean tea
spoon to collect app. 2 ml of faeces; 4. CLEAN THE SPOON BEFORE USING IT AGAIN (boil for 10
minutes); 5. insert faecal matter into a 10 or 15 ml tube with either ethanol or lysis buffer; 6. invert the tube
a few times to thoroughly mix the faecal material and liquid; 7. close the tube very tightly; 8. mark the
tubes (two for each animal, A + B); 9. store the tubes in a cool, dark place, if possible. DO NOT OPEN!;
10. throw away the gloves or clean and boil for 10 minutes.

35
PRESENT RESEARCH ON BEARDED PIGS
Below a number of existing or planned research projects are outlined that address the bearded pig.
Borneo
1. Kayan-Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan – Planned research by World Wide Fund for Nature
– Indonesia (WWF). Contact person: Stephan Wulfraat (nebulosa@samarinda.wasantara.net.id)
In particular, WWF is interested in learning more about the bearded pig migration routes. If key
feeding/breeding areas outside of the national park are disturbed enough to decrease pig populations,
indigenous hunters around the national park probably will turn to other, protected and endangered
species. This is why WWF has decided that pig research is one of our research priorities for the next few
years.'
2. Bulungan, East Kalimantan – Planned research by Doug Sheil, Center for International Forestry
Research (CIFOR) (d.sheil@cgiar.org).
CIFOR are investigating options for looking at herbivory effects in forest regeneration (logged and
unlogged forest), principally looking at the effects of rodents and larger animals (inc. pigs) on seed,
seedling and tree survival - and selection, using exclosures and other approaches.
3. East Kalimantan – Planned research by the Wildlife Conservation Society – Indonesia (WCS) (wcs-
IP@indo.net.id)
WCS have submitted a proposal for bearded pig research in East Kalimantan. They would like to take on
a PhD student, specifically for research on bearded pigs.
4. Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan – Current research by Lisa Curren
(lcurran@umich.edu)
Curren monitored pig seed predation, ranging, reproduction and seedling trampling at Gunung Palung
from 1985-1994 and within a logging concession during a mast fruiting from 1990-1993. These are
summarized in Curran and Leighton (2000) and Curran and Webb (2000). Curren also amassed long-term
feeding records and diet and reproduction. Data on nest building were collected but have not been
published.
5. Kayan-Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan – Past and planned research by Rajindra Puri
(104505.2441@compuserve.com).

36
Rajindra Puri has a lot of unpublished data on pig skulls (707 measured) and also a lot of observations
(hunting info' and direct) from several seasons of filed work in and around Kayan Menterang. He is
interested in having help on the morphometric analyses, and in seeing pig research activities develop.
6. Kalimantan – Planned research by Udo Ganslosser – Universität Erlangen – Nürnberg.
Udo Ganslosser and his research group are specifically interested in behavioural ecology and resource
use of bearded pigs, in relation to their social and reproductive behaviour. The research for one student,
Barbara Teldmeier, has so far been confirmed. She aims to work in the Bulungan site in East Kalimantan
on the CIFOR exclosure research.
Peninsular Malaysia
7. Pasoh – Current research by Kalan Ickes (kalan42@hotmail.com).
This research mostly addresses S. scrofa although S. barbatus also occurs in the area. Ickes mostly
studied the rooting and nest building. By using an exclosure the impacts of rooting by pigs was attempted
to quantify. Three other studies that were conducted included: (1) line transects to get an estimate of pig
density at Pasoh, (2) a survey of pig nests over a 25 ha area during three separate years, answering
question such as: how many nests are built per ha/year? How many saplings are used for a nest? What
proportion of the stumps die or resprout? What proportion of tree mortality is caused by pigs within the
entire forest? Are any species used preferentially in nest construction and thus at greater risk? Are nests
built in certain habitats more than others? (3) The ability of the forest understory to regenerate via
resprouting after pigs have snapped off the trunks to build nests.
Sumatra
8. Kerinci-Seblat National Park - Fauna and Flora International (FFI) (pop@padang.wasantara.net.id)
FFI-Kerinci Seblat recently submitted a project proposal for work on bearded pig in Kerinci Seblat to FFI in
the UK. There are plans to investigate the role of bearded pig in forest ecology, and in particular the
relationship between bearded pigs and tiger. FFI is supposedly going to be making a research framework
for Kerinci Seblat N.P. Following that, and assuming that Sus barbatus oi is deemed research-worthy,
Worldbank funds should be available (R. Blouch, in litt. 15 April 2000).
Range-wide
9. Borneo, Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia (and Sulawesi) – Erik Meijaard, Australian National University
(meyaard@indo.net.id).

37
As part of an attempt to model late Tertiary and Quaternary environments in Sundaland and Sulawesi,
Meijaard is planning to use input from molecular genetics, ecology, palynology and earth sciences to
establish the factors that determined the evolution and distribution of mammals in this region. Bearded
pigs and other suids are among the species used in this research.

38
RESEARCH SUGGESTIONS AND SPONSORSHIP
Bearded pig ecology and morphology
Possible research questions
1. What limits populations? (pathogens, health, predators, food, reproduction)
2. What are the factors behind fluctuating pig populations in a dynamic landscape?
3. Is there any geographic variation in morphometric dimensions? How do present-day pigs compare to
those hunted 100 – 150 years ago?
Stephens & Krebs (1986, not yet in ref. list) outline several possibilities for specific research questions to
ask by applying optimality approaches e.g. in foraging. Some of them that are relevant for our intended
study are:
4. How good the species is at doing its job? Compare the observed decisions with a range of possible
alternatives and deduce about adaptation
5. What currency (e.g. energy gain, time-efficiency, or predator - avoidance ... ) best explains an
animal's foraging?
6. What are the seasonal changes in dietary niche breadth
7. How do individual foraging decisions relate to (e.g.) migration, group flux and other dynamic chances
in spatio-social context.
It has to be emphasized that these topics are not of purely academic value, because they indeed
influence distribution patterns and changes in local abundance, and can be used to predict, not only
describe, them.
Other important issues to be addressed concern:
1. diet/habitat use/nests/densities/competition
2. Variation/segregation of populations
3. Life-history/age/reproductive ecology
4. Behaviour

39
Migration
Possible research questions
1. Do pigs display long distance migrations? or is it a wide spread, but relatively short distance movement,
which suggests long distance migrations.
2. Why do pigs start and stop moving?
3. What are biological indicators of migrating pigs for people and what are the biological interactions
between pigs and reported indicators (e.g. Bulwer’s pheasant (Lophura bulweri), fruit, butterflies, bees
and other insects, flying foxes and birds?)
4. What are the differences in behaviour and ecology of stationary and migratory pigs?
5. What are the migration routes?
6. How is migration temporally and spatially connected to food availability?
a. Do they eat and run or run and eat?
b. What are the physiological and behavioural links between fat, reproduction and migration?
c. What is the ecological relationship between food abundance and fat?
8. How important are protection reserves in the area as refugia and breeding areas for stationary pigs or
as migration routes or corridors.
9. What happens to pig migrations if their routes are disrupted by habitat loss?
10. What will then happen to forest ecology and biodiversity (following on from Lisa Curren's recent
Science paper)?
11. How can we map vital migration routes, and the coordinate across Borneo to ensure that they remain
under forest cover?
12. For Sumatra and Penin Malaysia: Does the difference in ecology between barbatus and scrofa mean
that the latter will gradually displace the former as habitats become disturbed, e.g., through selective
logging? i.e., will disturbance be putting barbatus at a competitive disadvantage? (In Sulawesi, it's
been suggested that if babirusa is hunted below certain levels, Sus celebensis takes over, fills the
niche, and even if hunting pressure stops, babirusa can't come back in.)

40
Forest – pig interaction
Possible research questions
1. What is the role of pigs in the ecology of forests within reserves (i.e. interactions with other species
and correlation of hunting pressure on other species with the abundance of pigs)?
2. What are the environmental and biological factors affecting food distribution, abundance and
availability? (e.g. seasonal variation, climatic events, geographical distribution of food sources,
competing seed predators, human impact on vegetation and included food sources.)
Pig – human interaction
Possible research questions
1. How important are bearded pigs as a resource (protein for people)?
2. Why has so much past info' been from anthropologists?
3. The 'value' of pigs - if we lost them what would happen ....?
4. How can we determine a rough estimate of population density so we can calculate sustainable offtake
rates -- over a large area, and at local level?
5. With migratory species, is the concept of protected sources and exploited sinks still applicable? Can it
be used as a management concept for the non-migratory phases/populations?
Possible research methodologies
Direct observations/signs (dung [parasites, diet], nests, tracks
Trapping (live measures/ mark recapture
Skull collections/teeth/measures
Radio tracking
Ground
Satellite
Biomarker methods
Genetic approaches
Exclosures

41
Landscape change and strategic observations
Interview techniques

42
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Resource Institute, Washington DC, USA.

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APPENDIX 1. TRANSCRIPT OF THE ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS, 24 – 29 MAY 2000
First Session Bearded Pig Conference: Wednesday, May 24
Present:
Erik Meijaard (WWF/CIFOR consultant)
Dale Whithinton (WWF Kayan-Mentarang)
Stephan Wulffraat (WWF Kayan-Mentarang)
Darmawan Liswanto (WWF Sundaland Project)
Evan Blumer (The Wilds, Ohio)
Rajindra Puri (International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden)
Robert Nasi (Center for International Forestry Research)
Liz Bennett (Wildlife Conservation Society – Sarawak)
<Raj Puri> Erik, can I start the ball rolling with a question?
<Raj Puri> Is the idea behind this conference to divide up the work that we agree needs to be done? Or is
it to facilitate the exchange of methods and data? Or is it to develop a collaborative and co-
operative research project? Or all of the above?
<Erik Meijaard> I would say mostly the two last points. Dividing what needs to done will be somewhat
difficult because most people have established research programs. It will be more a matter of finding
out where everyone’s interests are. Also whether we can find joint interests, and if so, how are we
going to streamline the research
<Raj Puri> There is always the option to write a new large grant and see how we can all fit into it
<Erik Meijaard> That's definitely part of the plan, and I would think bearded pigs are a very suitable
species for this
<Stephan Wulffraat> Large scale co-ordination of all current research would already provide extremely
useful information
<Evan Blumer> do most of the folks here already know each other? or are introductions in order,
perhaps with a few words about relevance to B.Pigs???
<Erik Meijaard> My interests, apart from being asked to organize this meeting, are in biogeography and
genetics of mammals in general and pigs fit in nicely. I am doing my Ph.D. at ANU in Canberra and am
based in Indonesia until the end of this year
<Dale Withington> My interest is in developing a better research effort on bearded pigs in relation to
better management of Kayan Mentarang National Park "and the landscape in which it is embedded, as
the bioregionalists like to say.
<Evan Blumer> I'm a Wildlife Vet...most of my expertise has been on big critters such as Rhinos, and now
Wild Bactrian Camels in Mongolia...I also run a large (6,000 hectare) breeding and research center
here in the USA. My involvement is via Lisa Curran, who asked for some advise about radio collaring
etc. I found the problem interesting and have sort of "joined" her team. My role MIGHT be as the vet,
to assist with capture, anesthesia, collaring, sample collection, etc, and while at it,I'd certainly want to
look at disease issues, etc. Also, one last point. I'n NOT from the University of Michigan (w/ Lisa). I'm
based at a place called "The Wilds"..yes I know...shitty name, but its better than the long official name,
and we are in Ohio, USA. DONE!
<Raj Puri> My past work was on hunting, ethnobiology, and lately conservation social science; my
interests here would be in a large scale collaborative effort to track pigs across the island of Borneo. I'll
have more to say on this later. Dr Nasi..?
<Robert Nasi> Robert Nasi, biodiversity programme leader in CIFOR, interested in defaunation and forest
dynamics... to you Stephan

50
<Stephan Wulffraat> I am particularly interested in bearded pigs because they are the major source of
meat for people living around Kayan Mentarang Nat. Park and much information is needed for the
management; also I am extremely interested in the interactions with the food sources cq. major
vegetation types
<Robert Nasi> Erik, how do you want to proceed, I found you background paper fairly exhaustive. Shall
we start by looking at possible gaps or trying to define what will be our interest in a large research
programme?
<Erik Meijaard> Thanks for the introductions. Maybe we should start discussions on pig migration as this
is one of the subjects that several people here are interested in.
<Erik Meijaard> Hi Liz, glad you made it. We have just done a round of introductions and maybe you
would like to say a quick word about your work and interest in bearded pigs
<Liz Bennett> OK, thanks. Interest mainly from point of view of sustainable hunting. I work for WCS, and
also now Sarawak Govt, trying to get wildlife conservation measures implemented on ground, in
balance with rural human needs. So balancing wildlife conservation needs with rural human needs.
<Erik Meijaard> Do, we agree that we look at migration issues first? This would include methodologies
(radio-tracking, satellite tracking etc.), the link between migration and forest phenology, nutritional
status of pigs etc.
<Erik Meijaard> I guess our advantage is that we potentially have people working in West Kalimantan,
East Kalimantan (2 sites), Sarawak, and also Kalimantan-wide (WWF-Sundaland). This would allow for
comparisons of pig activity over a large area. Is this methodologically useful?
<Robert Nasi> We could involve Danum Valley people in Sabah?
<Raj Puri> I don't think your map correctly identifies the known movements of pigs in East Kalimantan.
Also, I'd be very careful with Pfeffer's data. He wasn't there long and didn't track pigs. Overall, we need
much better data.
<Liz Bennett> Yes, and also applied useful since disruptions to behaviour on one side of border
presumably affect lots of things across it.
<Liz Bennett> Agree with Raj. Caldecott's data also based entirely on hunter interviews, no fieldwork in
forest.
<Raj Puri> Which leads me to my primary point and suggestion (sorry I don't have much time left today!)
<Erik Meijaard> The map is very general and probably inaccurate. Does anyone have any suggestion of
how to monitor pig movements.
<Raj Puri> It seems that there is a real opportunity here, in assembling a network of experts from around
the island of Borneo (and beyond), to formulate a way to collaboratively and simultaneously study
island-wide phenomena such as bearded pig migrations across Borneo. We would want to know
where pigs are going, when and why. Teams of researchers could tag hundreds (thousands?) of pigs
that could then be monitored. Monitoring stations could be set up across the island, cooperatively run
by local staff and scientists, and equipped to monitor the linked phenomena of rainfall, temperature,
mast fruiting, pig migrations and pig reproduction. They would share a common GIS database and be
linked via something called BORNEONET. Precedence for such a network comes from the Raytheon-
Amazon project. I think the Gates or Packard Foundations would be interested in trying to set up
such a system, not to mention AT&T or Raytheon. The network could also be used for keeping track
of fires, deforestation, human migrations, etc. A grandiose idea, of course, but with many people
involved the basic outlines could be hammered out pretty quickly, enough for a pre-proposal to fun
<Robert Nasi> Well, tagging works with turtle why not pigs?
<Stephan Wulffraat> Wouldn't it be better to start with a small scale pilot project, say for instance
between the areas west and east of the Bahau river; and get local villagers interested in this research?
<Liz Bennett> I must say I like the idea of large-scale one, since we know so little about scale of
movements (accurately).
<Dale Withington> Darmawan, Rajindra's suggestion seems like it is something that fits into the
Sundaland Regional Mission. Would the Sundaland Bioregional Project be interested in trying to put
together a pre-proposal based on the output of this internet chat fest?

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<Liz Bennett> Also, overcomes a problem which has bothered me for long time on how to deal with
putting expensive satellite collars on animals which get eaten the next day.
<Robert Nasi> Stephan, will you answer the question if you consider only a subset of the possible
migratory areas?
<Erik Meijaard> Evan, I wonder about how to follow pigs in the forest. Do you have much experience with
working on radio collared animals in rainforest areas? In my experience radio ranges are pretty small
and covering Borneo with a close network of receivers is going to take a lot of receivers.
<Evan Blumer> Since I don't know any of you yet, what is the level of experience with radio, satellite, RF
tracking?...or should I discuss briefly?
<Darmawan Liswanto> I have tried to establish a kind of research network with some other NGOs and
research institutions. We just need to know what aspect should be done as the finding will give a
contribution to conserving biodiversity in Borneo
<Stephan Wulffraat> Robert, I think it will give at least a starting point particularly if concentrate on an
area with a long history of regular migrations
<Darmawan Liswanto> I agree with Stephan to start with small subsets, but we should have several
subsets. I propose Sungai Mendalam in Betung Keerihun National Park and Gunung Palung
<Dale Withington> Raj, while Evan is preparing his presentation, I wanted to ask, do you think the KM
pigs coming over from the Iwan and crossing the Bahau to the Tubu & Malinau areas range further
afield in Kalimantan and Sarawak?
<Raj Puri> Maybe, but we just can't prove anything at this stage
<Erik Meijaard> Raj, did you look into the feasibility of your network plan in terms of technical aspects of
monitoring pig movement?
<Dale Withington> So it's possible that Betung Kerihun pigs spend some time in KM and beyond?
<Stephan Wulffraat> We do not even know whether the pigs crossing the Iwan are the same crossing the
Bahau; big mountain ranges in between
<Raj Puri> I've talked with some remote-sensing people about various ways to monitor whales etc, but I
think someone like Evan would no more of the possibilities
<Liz Bennett> Since we know so little, it's why I really like Raj's idea of wide-ranging study.
<Evan Blumer> ok...for following individuals (from which we can make assumptions about groups and
populations, there are 3 basic levels. I'm talking about technology, not mark and recapture or mark and
observe...ok? Basic...radio tracking....short distance use. Transmitters on each study animal, people
on the ground or in fixed wing aircraft can find the animals at regular periods, ID, track, etc. Best for
following individuals, or groups, finding animals for behavioral observations etc. This is very labor
intensive, but the equip is relatively cheap
<Raj Puri> does it work with thick canopy forests
<Erik Meijaard> Neither of these techniques work with stationary receivers, do they?
<Evan Blumer> Satelite or GIS...this is best for following over LARGE distances...to track migrations etc.
<Evan Blumer> Raj...yes..but the distances are only a few Kms....so you need teams on the ground
following collared animals...the good thing is, once radio frequencies are "traded", we can follow
animals from one study area, to the next
<Robert Nasi> I wouldn't be the one running after the pig in Bulungan area!
<Evan Blumer> Raj, the radio does work with thick canopy as the "waves do bounce a bit, but if using
"foot patrols", you are under the canopy and the canopy actually can help keep the signals from
bouncing into space
<Evan Blumer> ok...back to satellite/GIS
<Erik Meijaard> I don't think that radio tracking is an option, Robert, not with animals that move hundreds
of Kms in a few weeks time.

52
<Evan Blumer> the best thing, aside from the long distance /migration aspects, is that the data can be
automatically collected, or periodically downloaded from the collars themselves/
<Evan Blumer> actually Erik...you need certain types to answer certain questions...so we'll probably need
a mix...or hybrid collars
<Evan Blumer> so..with GIS you can get location at a time on a map type of info
<Liz Bennett> The whole problem though with any radiotracking technique is surely expense if high
proportion of animals might be hunted?
<Dale Withington> what is the cost of satellite tracking collars, how many are needed, etc.
<Erik Meijaard> So, I gather that for long distance migration satellites are going to be the thing. How many
animals would we need to collar to get any statistically useful data?
<Evan Blumer> for example...you may need a radio signal from a GIS collar, just to find the animal to get
close enough to "dump" your data. Some collars actually store GIS data on board...so you need to
"dump" it to your PC, etc.
<Evan Blumer> Dale...depends on the system used...there are several variatons all with advantages and
disadvantages
<Evan Blumer> o.....the BIGGEST problem is going to be the collars themselves.... and this is where Lisa
Curran and I got started chatting……think about the shape of a pig
<Liz Bennett> Hmm, no neck!
<Evan Blumer> it slopes from the shoulders almost perfectly to the snout
<Evan Blumer> exactly!!!!
<Evan Blumer> nothing to keep the collar on!!!!
<Robert Nasi> I think that no one solution will be a silver bullet, we will have to mix satellite tracking and
classical tagging capture/recapture techniques
<Evan Blumer> so now we have to think about harnesses, or sub-cutaneous inplants...all doable
(theoretically, but.....)
<Erik Meijaard> What about the following technique (labour intensive but cheap) in addition to satellites.
We catch and mark pigs, and ask the hunter who shoots it anywhere in Borneo to return the 'label',
for a financial compensation of course. Feasible>
<Evan Blumer> there is one more class of options
<Liz Bennett> Can you do implants for satellite tracking?
<Evan Blumer> yes Liz, but the antennae has to protrude
<Liz Bennett> Erik: offering rewards for collars will stimulate people to hunt collared animals to get the
reward, no?
<Stephan Wulffraat> I think that it is extremely important to get local people involved in this kind of
research; hunting pressure is very high; also, you can get so much local information and by combining
this your results will be much stronger
<Raj Puri> I have often wondered whether some sort of dye or heat producing tag could be cheaply made
and attached to hundreds of pigs; different colour for different areas. Then you could track the pigs by
taking pictures (using satellites) every few hours.
<Evan Blumer> Erik..this may give you a skewed result if the tags are visible enough to be seen BEFORE
the animal is shot
<Evan Blumer> the last option...is RF....or Radio Frequency
<Robert Nasi> The idea suggested by Erik worked quite well in Sao Tome (for turtle) but the catch can be
biased if people start to kill pig to get the reward
<Erik Meijaard> Yes. Liz, but does that matter. They would hunt pigs anyway, but the point is that we want
to know where the pig went to after being tagged. You can of course hide the tags.
<Raj Puri> keep the reward low

53
<Evan Blumer> RF tags are known by some of us as the transponders, or PIT tags used to ID pets, zoo
animals, salmon, etc
<Raj Puri> How about barcodes?
<Evan Blumer> when put under the skin, they have a relatively short range...some physics thing...like
microwave ovens...I don't need to discuss now
<Evan Blumer> Raj..these do the same thing, but better
<Evan Blumer> ok...when NOT under the skin, they can go longer distances, and since they have no
power sources of their own (powered via radio waves by the reader. They last "forever"
<Liz Bennett> I'd thought with transponders, thing in the animal was inert, and signal comes from
receiver?
<Evan Blumer> no..the "chip" is POWERED by the reader...but then it gives off a signal of its own with a
unique ID code...like a bar code
<Erik Meijaard> That's interesting. What sort of distances would we be talking about?
<Liz Bennett> Also, if it's not inert, is it truly harmless?
<Evan Blumer> the same technology is used on high speed highway toll gates (so you pay once per
month) to track railroad cars moving, etc
<Evan Blumer> they make them as ear tags! so....and this gets back to the earlier question about
stationary observers....you could put up "readers" at known travel or feeding points...and see who
comes by
<Evan Blumer> ok...I rest now
<Raj Puri> Thanks that was great!
<Erik Meijaard> Thanks, that's very useful Evan.
<Evan Blumer> obviously...there is much more, but.....
<Liz Bennett> Indeed!
<Evan Blumer> one last thing Liz...the ones you put into animals are basically inert...encapsulated in
surgical glass....so not reactions
<Liz Bennett> In terms of the study, is there an advantage in transponders vs old-fashioned ear tags?
<Evan Blumer> automation
<Liz Bennett> Latter would be v cheap so could be used in bulk.
<Dale Withington> Evan; What is the effective range of a reader, say at a place where pigs cross rivers?
<Evan Blumer> I'd have to check...but I seem to remember distances of about a Km or 2? but ONLY with
external tags....
<Raj Puri> I know that there is a special radar scanning telescope (camera) on the space shuttle. Could
that be used in place of on the ground monitors?
<Evan Blumer> dunno Raj....if NASA gets involved it would be VERY cheap! but I know nothing about it
<Liz Bennett> Really? How come?
<Evan Blumer> NASA has a big Earth Sciences initiative...and seem to be getting into these types of
issues
<Erik Meijaard> We shouldn't forget that pigs only rarely go on long distance hikes. We want to get the full
picture and for most of the time we will probably be studying pretty much stationary populations. So we
should aim at a mixture of methods, maybe radio tracking in small areas, satellite receivers on some
animals for when they start migrating, possibly tags as well.
<Evan Blumer> studying the earth as opposed to other celestial bodies
<Evan Blumer> ok...before my fingers fall off...we should probably discuss the practicalities of capturing
for whatever type of ID we use...

54
<Raj Puri> Exactly, and the bigger the project the cheaper! That's why Packard and Gates and
Raytheon as well as NASA might be interested
<Liz Bennett> I know a zillion ways to capture them DEAD, but alive...?!
<Erik Meijaard> Guns with tranquilizers, I guess, plenty of skilful hunters around
<Raj Puri> I agree
<Liz Bennett> True!
<Evan Blumer> does anybody know....do locals use...or could we use "pit traps"???
<Liz Bennett> Locals use them, with spears in the bottom
<Raj Puri> yes they do, usually with bamboo stakes in the pit!
<Evan Blumer> that probably won’t work Erik
<Robert Nasi> In Central Africa people use net to catch pigs
<Darmawan Liswanto> The local use a kind of pit fall trap
<Liz Bennett> In Sarawak, Bidayuh used to use nets too, though no more
<Evan Blumer> nets might work, but the most efficient will probably be pit types as the animals will be
trapped then a team could go around and process them
<Raj Puri> Anyone come face to face with 120 kilo male with big tusks?
<Erik Meijaard> here the gun comes in
<Liz Bennett> Pits for rhinos here have also resulted in dead rhinos.
<Evan Blumer> here are a few other things to consider....
<Stephan Wulffraat> Never heard people doing that in Kayan Mentarang; too much work; much easier
with guns, or spears assisted by couple of good hunting dogs
<Darmawan Liswanto> It’s been done in West and Central Kalimantan
<Evan Blumer> pigs (in general) are difficult to anesthetize..they develop something called malignant
hyperthermia...basicly a rampant self generating heat overload can kill them
<Raj Puri> and with that fat layer...
<Evan Blumer> exactly raj
<Evan Blumer> second....the best drugs to use...or at least the stand bye drugs that can be "reversed"
following a procedure are narcotics and are probably forbidden in the country...plus dangerous to the
untrained. There are newer combinations...but it gets more complicated and in my opinion, should only
be used by experienced vets or those trained by them
<Dale Withington> Evan, given trouble with drugs, is it possible to "tag" a pig like people tag marlin?
<Erik Meijaard> can you name some brand names. I have worked with vets before and may know what
available in Indonesia
<Evan Blumer> I guess anything is possible Dale....it goes back to "what kind of tag I gues
<Evan Blumer> we can discuss this later Erik...ok?
<Erik Meijaard> Maybe, it goes into a bit too much detail now. I am sure we will manage to somehow
handle a pig once it is caught. What are other things that we would want to know about pigs?
<Liz Bennett> One question on my list...Do we know anything about their need for particular breeding
areas with high densities of fruit trees? Should we be aiming to locate those, so we can then protect
them?
<Erik Meijaard> Robert, how does CIFOR's research on the impact of pigs on forest fit in. Or doesn't it?
<Robert Nasi> I'm not sure, yet...
<Erik Meijaard> Stephan mentioned today that Kayan Mentarang pigs almost exclusively feed on oaks,
and what else Stephan..?

55
<Robert Nasi> I believe that we are interested in pigs in Bulungan because they are likely to be important
drivers of forest dynamics (seed predators) and also because they constitute the main source of meat
for the people. Migration is of less direct interest but....in a large programme we do not need to all look
at the same issues, isn’t?
<Liz Bennett> Also, all tied in, according to Curran.
<Liz Bennett> If can't migrate, maybe upsets forest ecology and biod.
<Raj Puri> Liz, did Kalan [Ickes] find out whether nests were particular to one kind of habitat. In my case
pigs seemed to prefer rattan groves and thickets (Dicranopteris fern etc) for nest building, either that or
ridges with sago palms a nearby stands of oaks
<Liz Bennett> Sorry, I don't know...
<Erik Meijaard> I think that the migration story would fit in quite nicely with forest dynamics, with
regards to what triggers migration and how local pig concentration affect seedling survival and forest
regeneration.
<Raj Puri> Robert, as far as I can tell, the Malinau area is at the end of a migration route, should there be
disruptions in the Bahau or lower Kayan they may not make it into the area where CIFOR works!
<Liz Bennett> Re disruptions, does anyone know how bearded pigs fare in Acacia mangium plantations?
<Stephan Wulffraat> Liz, it think that in most primary lowland forests fruit- or nut- bearing trees are rather
abundant. At slightly higher altitudes the oaks, Eugenias (Myrtacae) and Garcinias are really abundant
and major food sources for the pigs
<Erik Meijaard> Or they may not make it out, in which case you may either find that the pigs die out, or
certain trees stop regenerating
<Liz Bennett> They are likely to intervene between major PAs in Sarawak.
<Robert Nasi> Well taken all, I didn't say that we should not work on migration... just that CIFOR will not
take the lead on that (I am having already some difficulties to convince my management for the
exclosure study)
<Liz Bennett> Stephen -- so protecting any good forest will do for breeding, we don't need to be more
specific than that?
<Robert Nasi> I don't think that there is a lot to eat under A. mangium... main fare would be insects and
other invertebrates?
<Raj Puri> WCS or WWF should handle the animal half of those projects at CIFOR don't you think?
<Liz Bennett> WCS side -- would have to check with Indonesian-based colleagues, but we're certainly v
interested.
<Evan Blumer> guess I have to talk to Ginsberg, eh Liz?
<Erik Meijaard> WCS have applied for a grant to do bearded pig research, but I don't know the present
status of that
<Liz Bennett> Yes, and Tim and Margaret.
<Robert Nasi> no problem with that, we are always pleased to have partners and we are not the best
ones in pigs!
<Liz Bennett> Sorry I don't either, but will be in NY next month, so can explore this thoroughly if we reach
a concensus here.
<Erik Meijaard> But CIFOR may be able to provide expertise for the forest dynamics side of the research,
together with Lisa's group in G. Palung
<Robert Nasi> We can try, at least……
<Liz Bennett> Sounds good.
<Evan Blumer> and Lisa has been talking extensively with WCS I believe?!?!?!?!
<Liz Bennett> Yes she has. We agree to collaborate.
<Erik Meijaard> Darmawan, what are WWF-Sundaland's plans on this?

56
<Dale Withington> Darmawan: What are the chances of the Sundaland Bioregion using existing funds or
raising new funds?
<Stephan Wulffraat> Liz..yes..though if possible you should still do a rapid inventory because in certain
exceptional conditions with very poor soils the number of fruit trees could be lower.
<Dale Withington> Also, is there potential to apply to WWF US for a species action grant, like we were
going to do with Banteng? The amount is not great, but every little bit will help to build on research of
CIFOR, WCS, etc.
<Darmawan Liswanto> For sure, we do not have specific plan on bearded pig.
<Robert Nasi> I think that we should first come out with a research programme and after look for money
<Evan Blumer> although his format is great for a start, is it possible to get $$ to get all relevant people
together in one place to really do this thing?? Like (perish the words) GEF Block A funds?
<Robert Nasi> I would be very reluctant to dig for GEF funds... this is a painful process
<Evan Blumer> No No No..I didn't mean GEF...LIKE GEF ....funding for a planning effort
<Robert Nasi> I think that we might have more chances with the EU and the "tropical forest budget" line
<Evan Blumer> I've JUST gone through a HORRIBLE GEF session....
<Dale Withington> Or the WWF-US species grant?
<Raj Puri> That’s getting cut back this year in some areas.
<Raj Puri> 'Sorry, I meant the EU money
<Evan Blumer> going "species" seem to simplify this and cut our options when this is such an elegant
"ecosystem" project
<Liz Bennett> Can we do a project description first though, through this format?
<Dale Withington> I'm not certain, but I think a "species" grant for planning could include related
ecosystem work.
<Robert Nasi> Question: who is going to write such a proposal?
<Liz Bennett> Then maybe have a meeting at a later stage?
<Robert Nasi> What about involving conservation international?
<Dale Withington> I think WWF Netherlands would want to see the Sundaland Project take responsibility
for organizing a planning meeting, using existing funds, or asking for new funds, since it already is
funding this project.
<Raj Puri> I think Erik is on track with his review, if he could boil it down to what we need to do (basic
questions, experimental monitoring system, relevance to conservation, networking, human needs, etc,
in a two page preproposal we send that around for comments and then send it to funders to see if
they'll bite!
<Darmawan Liswanto> It’s quite interesting. I can try it
<Evan Blumer> going back a bit...for what it is worth...the RF technology I discussed earlier has a
STRONG base in the Netherlands...may be a useful connection
<Raj Puri> I say this in response to the idea of spending money and time on a planning meeting
<Erik Meijaard> Any contacts? I am flying to Holland next week and could discuss the idea
<Raj Puri> Where do I look Evan?
<Evan Blumer> interesting...particularly in the swine industry!!!
<Erik Meijaard> Plenty of pigs in Holland
<Raj Puri> Of course, here are more swine than pigs here!
<Raj Puri> than people, oops!
<Raj Puri> I knew I should have taken typing lessons

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<Dale Withington> Certainly, if the Sundaland project wants to organize an actual meeting, it could use
the pre-proposal material that Raj suggests be an output of these discussions.
<Liz Bennett> Presumably planning meeting should be relatively small (?), so should be relatively
inexpensive. Especially as most of relevant people already in the region.
<Dale Withington> Erik, your original budget for the meeting we first planned was about US$8,000, right?
<Robert Nasi> We should be able to provide meeting facilities in CIFOR
<Liz Bennett> I was just going to ask if that might be possible!
<Erik Meijaard> I forgot, I thought it was less, but it will depend mostly on who's flying in from overseas
<Raj Puri> I'll send my comments and ideas for that meeting.
<Robert Nasi> We are closing to 10 and my boys are trying to disconnect me to get the line... any time
limit?
<Dale Withington> ending now sounds good to me, it's past my bedtime
<Liz Bennett> I was wondering same? Enjoying this a lot, but have to be up in 7 hrs to go to office!
<Evan Blumer> erik and raj...e-mail me about contacts...I have to do some digging
<Erik Meijaard> I would suggest stopping here. We have two more sessions on Thursday and Monday.
Tomorrow I will edit the proceedings of this meeting and send them to all the others (and to you). Back
on-line at 13.00 GMT.
Second Session Bearded Pig Conference: Thursday May 25
Topic: Human-pig interaction
Present:
Erik Meijaard (WWF/CIFOR consultant) (only after 21.30)
Dale Whithinton (WWF Kayan-Mentarang)
Stephan Wulffraat (WWF Kayan-Mentarang)
Darmawan Liswanto (WWF Sundaland Project)
Evan Blumer (The Wilds, Ohio) (missed out on the middle section of the session)
Rajindra Puri (International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden)
Robert Nasi (Center for International Forestry Research)
<Dale Withington> Tonight's topic was supposed to be about human-pig interactions. Raj, as our
resident anthropologist, how about you leading the discussion?
<Dale Withington> Go ahead Raj. And if we exhaust the topic, Robert might want to lead more discussion
on forest ecology issues that we might not have covered yesterday
<Robert Nasi> I agree Raj, you should lead
<Raj Puri> so, dependence on pigs for food and fat is surely demonstrated by numerous research studies,
all agree?
<Raj Puri> So what would happen if pigs suddenly disappeared?
<Robert Nasi> there is an obvious dependence by human beings on pigs for the meat, but is that the
only interaction?
<Dale Withington> According to your thesis, people would start hunting other species.
<Raj Puri> yes, but Robert is right, pigs may also cause disturbances to the forest that are beneficial or
not to humans
<Robert Nasi> Aren't people already hunting other species ???????????
<Raj Puri> Yes, but we've noticed that when pigs are scarce the diet breadth widens and rare species
increase in diversity and abundance in the diet

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<Stephan Wulffraat> Yes but they prefer pigs so a viable pig population would decrease pressure on
other species
<Raj Puri> Exactly
<Robert Nasi> In that case, would it be a viable alternative to breed pigs?????
<Evan Blumer> is the preference for pig in the diet similar across all cultural groups in the region???
<Raj Puri> Of course here we are excluding Moslem peoples of the coastal areas that depend on fish and
to some extent domesticated animals and some wild foods such as deer
<Evan Blumer> and along the same lines...would they eat "domestic" pig?
<Darmawan Liswanto> I think it’s only for Dayak people in case of Borneo
<Raj Puri> There is a long tradition among Dayak farmers of raising domestic pigs
<Robert Nasi> So even when they raise pigs, they are still hunting wild pigs?
<Dale Withington> Even if feed and veterinary problems can be solved to increase production of domestic
pigs, people still love to hunt
<Robert Nasi> That's true but if there is no survival pressure and no commercial market... the hunting is
likely not to be too detrimental
<Raj Puri> They hunt all the time , even when collecting forest products such as fruit, rattan etc, and vice
versa
<Dale Withington> Robert, on pigs or other species if there aren't enough pigs?
<Raj Puri> Erik, in his report mentions pigs as pests; this is especially true for manioc gardens
<Robert Nasi> on pigs and other species if there are enough domestic pigs
<Dale Withington> If the pig population crashed, it would take a long time to gear up domestic production.
In the meantime, the impact on some other species could be significant?
<Raj Puri> Domestic pigs compete with people for water and crops and pose a disease vector potential
<Robert Nasi> This is a classical story, even in France wild boars are considered as pests if there is no
viable population
<Robert Nasi> Agreed Raj but this is a question of balance?
<Raj Puri> of course, but wild pigs certainly help to reduce these costs
<Evan Blumer> folks...I have to step out for a few minutes...have a federal inspector here to deal
with....hopefully I'll be back before you're done… thought before I go....with pigs being so prolific...does
captive propagation of B.Pigs fit in here anywhere????
<Robert Nasi> So we need a viable population of wild pigs and a reasonable amount of domestic pigs at
the same time
<Raj Puri> Local people have tried this, and they report some hybrids, but I've never seen one!
<Dale Withington> Robert, yes, domestic pig production probably will increase gradually in the future.
<Robert Nasi> How can we translate these needs in terms of a research programme?
<Raj Puri> The silence is deafening
<Robert Nasi> I am sure that you have some ideas Raj!
<Dale Withington> Darmawan: Did you have a chance to talk to Pak Nengah today about support for a
research planning meeting?
<Darmawan Liswanto> Not yet he is sick
<Dale Withington> Pass on our "get well soon" messages
<Raj Puri> I guess a programme to introduce domesticated pigs and study the economic and dietary
consequences in one idea is one idea

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<Dale Withington> What are the chances that the Ministry of Agriculture will start a program on expanded
domestic pig production?
<Raj Puri> Very small, they want people to eat chickens and beef
<Robert Nasi> Have we already a robust comparative analysis of villages with/without access to pigs?
<Raj Puri> No we don't, unless Liz has some hunting data from Sarawak
<Robert Nasi> So that would be the first step... before asking to fund pig raising in a Muslim country
<Dale Withington> Raj, in your thesis didn't you include some data about changes in the sources of
protein as forests were logged/cleared?
<Raj Puri> I was going to suggest such a study but I can't think of any place that doesn't have access to
pigs
<Raj Puri> No, that is from Caldecott 1986
<Dale Withington> Yes, I meant reviewed data from other studies
<Robert Nasi> I am sure that we can find such place but the difficult part would be to find such a place
WITH forest but without pigs
<Raj Puri> true, robert, the comparison would be with a Muslim village (transmigrants maybe) and then
the villages would be so different as to be impossible to compare
<Dale Withington> How much of a pig population is left in what is left of Kutai National Park?
<Raj Puri> No idea
<Robert Nasi> Don't know but the fact that you ask the question seems to plea in favour of "little"
<Stephan Wulffraat> Raj; in certain periods of the year the abundance of pigs is much lower isn't it; what
are the preferred food species during these periods?
<Raj Puri> Actually, villages on the lower Kayan and lower Malinau (especially Respen Sembuak and
places where inland peoples have moves) have infrequent access to forest and wild game
<Darmawan Liswanto> I do not think that increased domesticated pig reduce the hunting pressure since
they should buy the domesticated one
<Raj Puri> so you might get an interesting comparison of how people readjust to urban life and the lack of
wild foods, one of which would be wild pigs
<Stephan Wulffraat> Cristina has probably collected this data for Tanjung Selor, where many people from
the interior resettled
<Raj Puri> Stephan, sorry catching up, fish tend to be a major substitute and then deer, including sambar,
barking deer and mouse deer, also turtles, lizards, game birds and primates, squirrels, porcupines all
increase in diet when pigs are scarce
<Dale Withington> What other species would be most susceptible to over harvesting pressure if pig
populations decreased? Banteng?
<Stephan Wulffraat> yes Raj, ordered from the easiest and most common animals to the less common
<Darmawan Liswanto> I think deer
<Robert Nasi> Most likely to be deer and muntjacs
<Dale Withington> But deer are much more prolific and common than Banteng, right?
<Dale Withington> More deer would be killed of course, but their population could absorb more hunting
pressure.
<Robert Nasi> Is it certain?
<Raj Puri> yes, banteng need to be protected outright regardless of pigs
<Raj Puri> Robert, no its not certain
<Stephan Wulffraat> particularly primates I think would be very susceptible to over-hunting because they
are so easy to catch

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<Dale Withington> Is there a more fragile bird species that would be more vulnerable if pig populations
plummeted?
<Robert Nasi> Another question: do we have to protect the pigs or to protect their habitat (slightly
different issue than with the Banteng I presume)
<Raj Puri> Habitat is my guess, food sources and access to them
<Dale Withington> Habitat, ideally.
<Robert Nasi> What would be the "best" habitat: rainforests, forests/clearing mosaics, swamp areas...?
<Stephan Wulffraat> they seem to have a wide variety of habitat preferences
<Raj Puri> re birds: The argus pheasant and other large ground dwellers would be more likely to
increase in the diet
<Stephan Wulffraat> yes Raj; Bas van Balen confirmed that
<Raj Puri> yes pigs can and do live everywhere, but where they prefer to live is a moot question
<Robert Nasi> Writing a sort of catastrophic scenario "after the pigs" based on actual knowledge and
inference would constitute a first tool to orient our research
<Raj Puri> because they have lived in this mosaic anthropogenic environment for thousands of years
now
<Raj Puri> Excellent idea Robert!
<Dale Withington> Robert, is this a good place for you to talk about impacts on forests "after the pigs?"
<Robert Nasi> I am not necessarily talking on the impact on forests... more on people
<Raj Puri> You are talking about very big exclosures?
<Dale Withington> I understand, but I was thinking that this is a topic we have not covered, and it is
related to impacts on other wildlife. But perhaps we are not finished with pig-human interactions.
<Robert Nasi> No I am talking of a simulation on what will be life in these places without the pigs.... sci-fi!
<Raj Puri> Look at Sabah and Sarawak, they are just a decade or less ahead of East Kalimantan, even
W. Kalimantan has a very different situation
<Dale Withington> Raj, one pig-human interaction question I have is whether Dayaks around KMNP ever
built fences around ladangs. I haven't seen them like I have in the Philippines and Papua New
Guinea.
<Raj Puri> yes, I've helped built many of them. They are usually quite tall and meant to secure fields from
predation by deer
<Stephan Wulffraat> and what about the impact of pigs as major seed predators; without pig the entire
forest composition would perhaps be different, less diverse
<Raj Puri> Well, we need Lisa Curran for that one
<Robert Nasi> Forest will be different also with too much pigs (or deer)
<Raj Puri> Yes, migration periods are incredibly destructive to the forest floor and ground vegetation,
including seedlings
<Dale Withington> So if the pigs can't migrate, they'll initially do some damage to the forests until their
populations decrease.
<Raj Puri> yes, as Lisa demonstrates for G. Palung, although their populations haven't crashed yet
<Dale Withington> Why not?
<Raj Puri> because they can escape
<Dale Withington> To where?
<Stephan Wulffraat> locally yes
<Raj Puri> to areas outside the logged concessions and national park, we think

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<Robert Nasi> But why couldn't the pigs migrate... in fact they came "on purpose" in the case of Lisa
study?
<Dale Withington> It sounds like they can still migrate?
<Raj Puri> yes, they did, but no one is quite sure how far they migrate away from that area
<Raj Puri> before they come back, we assume they by pass the logged areas
<Robert Nasi> From what I've seen in Africa with Potamochoerus, they don't give a damn about crossing
a logging area
<Raj Puri> yes, that’s what I meant but they have to go past them to find food sources
<Robert Nasi> They will find food sources in logged-over areas
<Stephan Wulffraat> where all seed bearing dipterocarps have been removed
<Robert Nasi> You very seldom remove all seed-bearers even by cutting 10 trees/ha... but you create a
havoc and bring down some food from the canopy (?)
<Raj Puri> Yes but they may be following older routes to other areas where there are food sources
<Stephan Wulffraat> depends on the logging impact I suppose; and number of non-commercial species
that were allowed to be left over (such as figs)
<Robert Nasi> Maybe.. hence the question: what is the driver behind the migration if this is not food?
<Raj Puri> Lisa would know the distribution of pigs in and outside the logged over areas. It maybe an
abundance of favoured foods such as dipterocarps
<Robert Nasi> Seeds of Lauracees, Fagacees are rich in fatty acids and an important food source (but I'm
not sure for pigs)
<Darmawan Liswanto> So the driver is still the food source
<Robert Nasi> Not clear from the review of literature made by Erik
<Raj Puri> True too and palms and figs appear to be very important during the off-seasons.
<Raj Puri> re drivers: the alternatives to food seem to be hunting pressures and reproduction
<Stephan Wulffraat> what else seems more logical beside food source
<Raj Puri> Pigs may search out high fruit areas when pregnant
<Dale Withington> Doesn't migration normally expose them to more hunting pressure, particularly when
crossing rivers?
<Stephan Wulffraat> climate ?
<Robert Nasi> probably more an "ecological" phenomenon (reproduction, climate) than an anthropogenic
one (hunting)
<Darmawan Liswanto> Maybe suitable breeding sites ?
<Stephan Wulffraat> why should they move for reproduction
<Raj Puri> to be in a place that will have adequate food supplies for young?
<Robert Nasi> To mix with other populations and avoid inbreeding?
<Dale Withington> Is there any chance of pigs needing certain minerals from special soils during
breeding or other unique times of the year?
<Raj Puri> There are local movements, local river crossings that can be triggered by hunters and other
disturbances, but the long distance migrations seem to be toward impending fruit seasons since they
often arrive and give birth weeks before the dipterocarps drop their fruit
<Stephan Wulffraat> they don't have to look far for ridges
<Raj Puri> not in the interior, there are ridges everywhere
<Raj Puri> In my exerience Robert rutting and mating take place before the migration
<Robert Nasi> Welcome back... the current question: what triggers migration?

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<Darmawan Liswanto> re minerals, I found adult female and infant visiting salt water lake in S.
Mendalam several times during dry season
<Stephan Wulffraat> it seems to me that they build their "nests" all over Kayan Mentarang, mostly on
ridges
<Raj Puri> true Stephan
<Evan Blumer> doubtful ....nutrition isn't generally so "timing" specific, in mammals at least
<Robert Nasi> nutrition may not be "timing" specific but mass abundance of food might be
<Raj Puri> yes, especially in Borneo
<Stephan Wulffraat> or the oaks and chestnuts in case of KM; much more important food source here
than Dipt.
<Robert Nasi> Migrations: what triggers? Do we need more or less pigs (for the forest and the people)?
<Raj Puri> Stephan, does your survey show a huge difference in the abundance of oaks and other non-
dipterocarps in forest above 300 m?
<Dale Withington> Erik, since we are talking about migration, do you want to give us Liz B's questions on
this topic?
<Erik Meijaard> Okay Dale I will copy them in one by one:
<Erik Meijaard> Okay, Liz' question no. 1: What happens to pig migrations if their routes are disrupted
by habitat loss?
<Robert Nasi> Good question, consistent with our discussion on habitats. Need to check what sort of
habitat loss will disrupt migration
<Raj Puri> They change direction, path, route or scatter.
<Erik Meijaard> Question no. 2: What will then happen to forest ecology and biodiversity (following on
from Lisa Curran's recent Science paper)?
<Erik Meijaard> Shall I just fire all the questions first and then we discuss them?
<Robert Nasi> Forest ecology will be affected; biodiversity will change (increase or decrease)
<Dale Withington> I'd say fire the questions. Some of these topics were discussed earlier, and will be
available through the log.
<Erik Meijaard> 3. How can we map vital migration routes, and the coordinate across Borneo to ensure
that they remain under forest cover?
<Erik Meijaard> 4. For Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia: Does the difference in ecology between S.
barbatus and S. scrofa mean that the latter will gradually displace the former as habitats become
disturbed, e.g., through selective logging? i.e., will disturbance be putting barbatus at a competitive
disadvantage? (In Sulawesi, it's been suggested that if babirusa is hunted below certain levels, Sus
celebensis takes over, fills the niche, and even if hunting pressure s
<Raj Puri> Rattan collectors (roughly two dozen of them working in the Aran watershed are reported to
have influenced pig migrations going from West to East, such that they turned South and crossed the
Kayan rather than went into the Upper Malinau
<Erik Meijaard> 1. How can we determine a rough estimate of population density so we can calculate
sustainable offtake rates -- over a large area, and at local level?
<Stephan Wulffraat> Raj; i'll answer your question later
<Erik Meijaard> and the last one: 6. With migratory species, is the concept of protected sources and
exploited sinks still applicable? Can it be used as a management concept for the non-migratory
phases/populations?
<Raj Puri> Wow, how do we deal with these questions?
<Robert Nasi> If someone is able to answer we don't need the research programme!
<Dale Withington> One question we haven't discussed at all is about estimating population density.

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<Raj Puri> Question 5. seems difficult to measure given the mobility of pigs
<Evan Blumer> am I missing something? This is a straightforward thing isn't it, with numerous established
methodologies?
<Robert Nasi> I would think so
<Erik Meijaard> How would you suggest to do this on an unevenly dispersed, shy, rainforest species,
whose shits disappear overnight?
<Raj Puri> methodology is one thing implementation another
<Evan Blumer> I'd say talk to the primate people.....
<Raj Puri> Primates are mostly territorial
<Stephan Wulffraat> primates are so much easier to survey
<Erik Meijaard> But primates vocalize or build nests or just sit in a tree; pigs run!
<Evan Blumer> well...obviously I’m outside of my field here....
<Raj Puri> We need to invite Evan for a walk in our woods!
<Dale Withington> With his pig collars
<Evan Blumer> careful boys..or I'll bring my dart guns too!
<Raj Puri> we have blowguns!
<Evan Blumer> so do I raj!
<Evan Blumer> ok, ok, ok....
<Erik Meijaard> Camera trapping would be one way to determine relative densities and if trap
encounters can somehow we related to sign densities or real densities then they could be used to
establish densities in many different sights under different hunting regimes
<Raj Puri> I think surveying nests are a good way also to get an idea of relative densities
<Stephan Wulffraat> can you distinguish one pig from the other on your camera trap photo's ?
<Erik Meijaard> How many nests does one pig make per day, per week, per year?
<Darmawan Liswanto> How about track count?
<Robert Nasi> Estimating densities seems feasible for a lot of "moving" species why not for pigs? But it
will cost money
<Erik Meijaard> I am not sure about that Stephan, I guess adult males will full-grown beards would have a
better chance than females
<Erik Meijaard> Tracks counts would be too dependent on substrate. Good tracks on riverbanks, nothing
on hard soil.
<Raj Puri> Robert, one way is to set up cameras at river crossings and ask people not to hunt there, but
that is a risk!
<Erik Meijaard> Robert, are CIFOR planning to use camera traps in Bulungan, or is that too close to real
wildlife work?
<Raj Puri> Again WCS, WWF tasks.
<Robert Nasi> So far there are no plan to use cameras except to take pictures when the boss shows up
<Erik Meijaard> Kayan-Mentarang, Betung kerihun, and Gunung Palung may also be good sites for
camera trapping work. It's quite labour intensive so you would need someone full-time on the job. But
the results may be very useful. We could detect seasonal chances in density (relative that is), which
could be related to forest phenology and hunting pressure (how many people pass the camera with
guns on their backs)
<Robert Nasi> and shoot or steal the camera!!!!

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<Robert Nasi> Let me precise CIFOR's position... we would be pleased to have pig researchers in
Bulungan (even if they are not CIFOR), we would join an integrated research programme but we will
not do direct "wildlife research". There are people much better than us to do that
<Darmawan Liswanto> I do not think we can use the cameras to capture pig and human with the same
cameras.
<Erik Meijaard> Camera losses are surprisingly low, but you do get a lot of photos of people sticking their
faces into the lens
<Erik Meijaard> If you have the chance you should have a look at WCS-Indonesia photo series (or FFI's).
Quite impressive
<Stephan Wulffraat> or these guys in Lampung; fantastic
<Robert Nasi> Any chances to make some money for research by blackmailing some of the people on
pictures?
<Dale Withington> Erik, do you know where WCS is considering doing pig research in East Kalimantan?
Is it in Bulungan Research Forest, or also Kayan Mentarang or other places?
<Erik Meijaard> The camera trapping could be combined with radio collaring certain animals, and using
other techniques for long-distance tracking. Which would give us a complete picture, especially when
this is done in several sites
<Evan Blumer> I agree with Erik...but I'd add one more component (not knowing THIS forest at all...)
<Erik Meijaard> Dale, I don't know where they are planning their research, and I didn't get the impression
that they did either
<Evan Blumer> if this become a huge cooperative venture, then periodic "mass" transects...each team
does a set of transects at the same time...that data may fill in the "gaps" from the other methods
<Dale Withington> We need to talk to them to see if they would like to cooperate in and around KM,
particularly where it borders BRF [Bulungan Research Forest].
<Erik Meijaard> It will be important to make sure that all research groups share the same methods so at
least we can compare between sites
<Robert Nasi> Back to the ground... we have to design first a proper research programme
<Erik Meijaard> The research design was really meant for the Monday session, when I hope to be able
to get Doug Sheil and Lisa Curran in as well, and maybe we should think a bit more about general
methodologies
<Erik Meijaard> Does anyone know why Lisa isn't joining us?
<Evan Blumer> Erik...do you want me to phone her?
<Erik Meijaard> Yes Evan, it would be very useful if she could join the Monday session. It would be great
if you could talk her into that
<Dale Withington> Raj, I think we are done!
<Raj Puri> Bye everyone
Session Close: Thursday, May 25, 22:05:20 2000
Third Session Bearded Pig Conference: Wednesday, May 29
Topic: Methods and organisational aspects
Present:
Erik Meijaard (WWF/CIFOR consultant)
Dale Whithinton (WWF Kayan-Mentarang)
Douglas Sheil (Center for International Forestry Research)

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Liz Bennett (Wildlife Conservation Society – Malaysia)
Darmawan Liswanto (WWF Sundaland Project)
Evan Blumer (The Wilds, Ohio) (missed out on the middle section of the session)
Rajindra Puri (International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden)
Robert Nasi (Center for International Forestry Research)
Lisa Curran (University of Michigan) (unclear whether Lisa actually established a connection)
<Robert Nasi> Birds are generally not reputably clever... but what about pigs (to be back on track)?
<Raj Puri> Pigs are clever
<Erik Meijaard> Shall we just get started, or do we expect anyone else to join?
<Raj Puri> and thus a real challenge to study, what do we have in the way of research programme
proposals?
<Liz Bennett> Erik, do we want to start? I have a couple of questions from last time which I sadly
missed....
<Liz Bennett> 1. My questions last time were not meant necessarily to be answered, but to be some
thoughts about what a study might need to address from management p-o-v. Hence, answering them
might be part of aims of a study.
<Liz Bennett> Side question -- don't females have luxuriant beards too, so they're not a good indicator of
sex?
<Raj Puri> As far as I can remember, yes
<Liz Bennett> 2. It’s been shown throughout tropics (including Sarawak) that provision of alternative
protein doesn't reduce hunting on its own, without other deterrents/education programmes etc.
Certainly true in Sarawak.
<Erik Meijaard> What I wanted to address in this session, and I already mentioned that in my email, is
whether we want to continue the present programmes or start something big and new
<Liz Bennett> My feeling -- start something big and new. Those management questions cannot be
answered otherwise as fully as we need.
<Raj Puri> Big and new gets my vote
<Dale Withington> Try for the big and new, and continue to struggle on as much as possible until the big
and new gets funding
<Darmawan Liswanto> Big and new is ok
<Dale Withington> Does anyone think it would be interesting and useful to try to recruit some
documentary filmmakers to do a film on bearded pig migrations? There were a couple of
filmmakers in the WWF office today, and they seemed very interested.
<Darmawan Liswanto> In our last discussion, migration is one of important issue for management
<Raj Puri> Dale, which filmmakers were there?
<Dale Withington> Raj, I didn't get their names. They are working on a rhino film in Ujung Kulong and on
to Sumatra. I told them I'd seend a copy of our final repor
<Dale Withington> Raj, I'll get their names and email addresses from Nazir later.
<Liz Bennett> Film of bearded pigs could be very exciting, especially if it included people aspects too.
<Dale Withington> Yes, people would be a very important part of it.
<Raj Puri> We need an umbrella program that at least gives us the infrastructure and basic monitoring
program. Then a lot of the smaller projects could be slotted in, whether they are done by students,
post-docs etc.
<Liz Bennett> Totally agree,, hence why we need big and new since can't be studied within one area with
limited resources.
<Liz Bennett> So would the umbrella be looking at migration?

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<Raj Puri> yes, that was my first idea
<Liz Bennett> Sounds good, especially as land is being cleared so fast.
<Erik Meijaard> So, if we all agree that we want to try finding funds for a large and new programme,
what are the next steps to be taken? A follow-up meeting, a preproposal, etc.?
<Darmawan Liswanto> How about breeding habitat preference
<Raj Puri> After reading through Evan's statements from last week I think we need to propose a linked
set of pig monitoring techniques. But the basic method should be a cheap but extensive tagging
program, with a low reward for well hidden tags. We could then experiment in certain areas with the
fancy technology Evan discussed. What do you all think?
<Liz Bennett> Agree that basic core thing to start should be cheap but extensive. We know so little about
where the critters might end up -- except many on a plate. And then try out other techniques on
experimental basis. Sounds very sensible.
<Raj Puri> True, and Darmawan, by tracking pigs we would eventually locate breeding grounds and be
able to say something about preferences!
<Liz Bennett> It would also answer questions about use of disturbed habitats.
<Dale Withington> Wouldn't it be very difficult in many parts of Borneo for people to send in a tag (via the
post) and receive a reward?
<Raj Puri> No, we establish collection points at kecamatan offices, trade stores etc.
<Liz Bennett> I guess we'd have to have network of "informants". In Sarawak, we could do it. Don't
know about Indonesia.
<Dale Withington> I think this would work for tracking pigs locally, say around KM, but if they move long
distances?
<Raj Puri> WWF and CIFOR have been all over East Kalimantan, we could do it there I'm sure!
<Liz Bennett> Here, all longhouse leaders are gazetted as "honorary wildlife rangers" throughout whole
State. They could be asked to help, and I'm sure would do so.
<Raj Puri> Distance doesn't matter, as long as the tags are turned in with data on date and location of
capture and other simple details
<Liz Bennett> Could reward be somehow in kind, not cash... still worry about people hunting for the
reward.
<Liz Bennett> Like bezoar stones in colobines -- shoot 50 animals in hope of getting one stone.
<Raj Puri> Liz, a tag worth a buck or so is pittance to a hunter but valuable to a child!
<Liz Bennett> True!
<Dale Withington> The problem with distance is that the farther away from our home bases, the more
difficult it will be to set up and manage a reimbursement system. It can be done, but it will take a lot
of logistical effort
<Erik Meijaard> I think we can prevent this Liz, by making the tag invisible on the outside
<Darmawan Liswanto> We can try to ask local NGO to help us,since they have many community
programs in Kalimantan
<Raj Puri> yes, Darmawan, we would need a big public relations campaign
<Liz Bennett> Our data gap would be Brunei since can't see govt there doing publicity programme on
pigs. But guess it's a very minor gap.
<Raj Puri> Liz, we call then ikan darat in Brunei
<Erik Meijaard> I can live with that, Liz
<Raj Puri> Isn't there a conservation group in Brunei?
<Liz Bennett> Joe Charles at university is v interested, with v keen students. He does lot of fieldwork in
Temburong area.

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<Raj Puri> Liz, you might want to float the idea around at the BRC, even hold an informal gathering of
interested people
<Liz Bennett> Could do. Are any of the rest of you going to be here? Erik? Others?
<Dale Withington> Erik, I think we have to assume that it will be at least slightly difficult to fund a
planning/proposal writing meeting. What are the alternatives?
<Liz Bennett> Unless people from their own institutions could get personal funding.
<Raj Puri> Somebody draft a two-pager and send it around!
<Darmawan Liswanto> I had passed your question to Pak Nengah, Dale. But no answer yet. He’s still
considering it.
<Dale Withington> Thanks for trying, Darmawan. I also sent him an email message.
<Liz Bennett> e.g., I'm sure WCS would be prepared to pay for me to come to CIFOR (or wherever) for
this. But is this feasible for others?
<Erik Meijaard> I agree with Raj that we could start with a pre-proposal and send that around and start
lobbying
<Darmawan Liswanto> Erik, could you please send your meeting proposal
<Erik Meijaard> It will be on its way tomorrow morning, Darmawan
<Dale Withington> There's a chance we can fund at least part of the effort to write the pre-proposal, but
I will not know until July.
<Erik Meijaard> We were discussing if and how we would organize a follow-up planning meeting
<Robert Nasi> That seems a reasonable idea, but we need a pre-proposal to discuss during this follow-up
meeting
<Erik Meijaard> Raj, if there would be funds available, would you be interested in writing a pre-proposal
together with me?
<Robert Nasi> What sort of money we're talking about????
<Dale Withington> I figured one hour of consulting time for Erik and Raj.
<Raj Puri> That sounds about right! yes
<Dale Withington> Pak Pelit strikes again
<Robert Nasi> isn't that too much?
<Erik Meijaard> I can write quickly Dale, but that's pushing it!
<Erik Meijaard> make it 1.5
<Dale Withington> Ok, Ok, how much time do you estimate is needed, and then let's search for funds
from all project partners.
<Erik Meijaard> Raj, I will be in Leiden between 4 - 9 June. Shall we meet there and discuss this, or are
you on your way out?
<Erik Meijaard> Dale, I would say that 1 or 2 days of consultancy would be enough, as most of the work
has been done already ion the background document.
<Dale Withington> I'll see what we can do once I receive end-of-financial year $$$ reports in July
<Raj Puri> I 'll take a one hour job!
<Dale Withington> There's a chance I'll be able to make a decision before the end of this month, if our
financial people in Jakarta can get me information quickly. Perhaps we can arrange something before
the end of the month.
<Doug Sheil> Hi there everyone - I've been watching so far as Erik gives me the running comments .....
great I'm impressed.
<Robert Nasi> It would be nice to have some clear commitments from potential partners in advance
<Raj Puri> Erik, I leave for US tomorrow, return to Leiden on June 26th, but we can do this by email

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<Dale Withington> Is there a chance that you two guys could work together by email and finish a pre-
proposal by the end of June? This would make it easier for us, as we have to use or lose funds by 30
June.
<Doug Sheil> I think a good concept draft is an excellent step.
<Liz Bennett> I'll be at WCS in New York for last week of June, so anything then would give me
something solid to discuss there too.
<Raj Puri> yes, Erik really has the basics all down, we just need to hash out the arguments and the tech
requirements. Again, Evan will come in handy for that
<Robert Nasi> Not that easy I'll say... donors have urchins in their pockets, you have to be convincing....
<Raj Puri> Yes, we'll use all the sexy, trendy jargon we can cram into two pages
<Doug Sheil> From our perspective in CIFOR it is useful to have a broad consensus from many potential
partners that the work we're involving ourselves in is of broad interest - at least there'll be fewer raised
eyebrows when I bring up pigs next time!
<Robert Nasi> very right (not my eyebrows anyway!)
<Liz Bennett> Will this document be sent round to the rest of us for comment?
<Raj Puri> Sure, Island wide forest dynamics, establishing an island wide monitoring system that
eventually can cover more than just pigs, on a island that has some of last great expanses of tropical
forest left
<Raj Puri> I was thinking of establishing broader interests
<Robert Nasi> It would be nice and more saleable to also have some socio-economic issues
<Liz Bennett> And where animals concerned are species of single greatest nutritional and economic
benefit to many peoples throughout the island. Lots of data to support that statement.
<Raj Puri> This is good, keep the significances coming...
<Robert Nasi> Getting shape, we've almost got the proposal title
<Liz Bennett> Been staple in diet for at least 35,000 yrs.
<Erik Meijaard> Back to your proposal Raj (and to you Dale). I will write the main research ideas in a one
or two page proposal in the next couple of days, which I will then send to Raj. After that I won't be on
email again until 8 July, so we either wait until then or Raj finishes the proposal. As I know nothing
about socio-economy, I guess Raj could write about that?
<Robert Nasi> What is the purpose of the concept note: circulating among us for inputs/comments or
first contact with donors?
<Raj Puri> I will work on it and send it to all on the list, and I will receive your comments, incorporate them
and then send it all to Erik by July 8th
<Liz Bennett> Yet recent changes in habitat use, hunting technology etc. etc. threaten whole delicate
system, threatening forest ecology (biod etc) as well as food security.
<Liz Bennett> Enough buzz words?!
<Robert Nasi> Cukup!
<Liz Bennett> Raj -- sounds excellent.
<Raj Puri> Concept is a draft pre-proposal, after everyone has commented/contributed then we approach
donors
<Dale Withington> Will the pre-proposal have to indicate which organization will do what?
<Raj Puri> I don't think so, but it could if we already know that
<Dale Withington> That step comes later, if a donor nibbles?
<Liz Bennett> No I don't either. Just to see which fish might bite.
<Robert Nasi> That means that we'll have to consider money and operational matters in this pre-
proposal...

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<Liz Bennett> One thing we do need in pre-proposal is who will be coordinating point person.
<Liz Bennett> Volunteers? Erik? Raj?
<Raj Puri> yes a general statement on overall costs, phases of work, and who will be in charge!
<Raj Puri> We don't need funds for a pre-proposal! Its only two pages!, and most of the work is already
done, just need to write it and argue over it.
<Robert Nasi> It is more than that, it is 2 pages of concept note, an overall budget, the partners and the
main chronogram
<Liz Bennett> And rest of us of course will help and chip in where needed.
<Raj Puri> Agreed Robert, but we still don't really need a grant for a pre-proposal
<Dale Withington> The pre-proposal could include plans for an initial planning and work-sharing meeting if
a grant were to be awarded.
<Raj Puri> Good point. That would be Phase I.
<Dale Withington> Or a small kind of bridging grant if a donor was slightly interested but wanted to
learn more before full commitment.
<Robert Nasi> The pre-proposal should be the basis for discussion in the follow-up meeting
<Liz Bennett> And also the bait so by follow-up meeting, we know some of possible donors out there.
<Raj Puri> We'd still be obligated to submit a proposal to get full funding, but the pre-proposal can weed
out the not interested at all category
<Liz Bennett> Yes. And it could be very general at that stage.
<Dale Withington> We had some trouble trying to organize a meeting in Samarinda of all of us now.
What can we do in the future to make it easier to get enough people together in one place?
<Raj Puri> Evan, would you have time to read our two pager and comment on the technical aspects?
<Evan Blumer> of course....I'd be happy to
<Liz Bennett> Dale -- plenty of lead time always helps...?
<Dale Withington> How much lead time?
<Evan Blumer> 2 months minimum
<Raj Puri> Great, as you'll see from the transcript, several of us are leaning toward cheap but extensive
tagging of pigs to trace migration routes across the island. I think that will be the basic methodology in
the pre-proposal
<Liz Bennett> I don't know for others. For me, at least three months....
<Liz Bennett> I agree Raj, that sounds really solid and good.
<Evan Blumer> since I obviously haven't heard that part of the discussion, and won't until I read the
updated version from Erik....may I make one comment?
<Evan Blumer> Don't fool yourselves with "false economy"....when you consider all of the cost to put
"ID" on the critters (vet costs, drugs, digging pits or whatever you trap them in....AND the VALUE that
I.D.'ed pigs have to your research.......) the cost of the "tags" (whether simple or complicated) may be
insignificant. So "ID" them with what is best for your needs....
<Liz Bennett> It's partly a question of numbers, since we have no idea what % of tagged animals will be
shot.
<Raj Puri> Yes we need a large, extensive sample size
<Liz Bennett> Evan, do you have some rough figures of the costs of different types of equipment you told
us about last week?
<Evan Blumer> well...let me guess-timate....
<Robert Nasi> Do we need a once and for all sample or a series of more limited samples spread on a
longer period

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<Liz Bennett> Current discussion -- relative merits of "cheap but many" tags vs is this a false economy,
given costs of trapping etc in first place.
<Evan Blumer> for RF tags (in adequate #s) approx. $10 per animal, but the "readers" may be expensive
$1 - 1.5k
<Evan Blumer> Liz...that isn't exactly what I was trying to say.....let me try again. If you are going to tag,
you have to have your hands on the animals....since this has significant costs REGARDLESS of the
type of tag used, and the tagged animals will be (by the nature of being "ID'ed") more valuable, it may
not make sense to consider the cost of the tag as it may be a false economy to use what is
cheapest....it may not save much in the TOTAL cost, and other approaches may give SO much more
info on top of what the cheap tag could give.
<Evan Blumer> phew....sorry....you see, NEVER ask my opinion!!!!
<Raj Puri> While Evan is writing, what info would we want from hunters that returned a tag?
<Robert Nasi> Date, place, time of hunting; behaviour (solitary, group), etc...
<Evan Blumer> I think I’ll go back to sleep now...you do realise that it is a national holiday here today....
<Liz Bennett> Location (river system, nearest longhouse/kampung etc), date
<Dale Withington> And relative condition, fat, medium, skinny, etc.
<Darmawan Liswanto> sex
<Raj Puri> That's a good point Evan, RF tags would mean we wouldn't necessarily require a reward
program for turning them in
<Liz Bennett> Plus we could ask age and sex so we can cross-check our original records, to test observer
accuracy
<Robert Nasi> Will you ask some parts of the animal?
<Liz Bennett> Soft tissues rot. There are lots of taboos here re bones and teeth, especially if dogs used in
hunt. Does same apply your side?
<Erik Meijaard> A little lysis buffer tube attached to the tag would be handy for collecting genetic
information
<Darmawan Liswanto> don't forget info on breeding status for female
<Raj Puri> Just yank a hair from his chinny chin chin if you want genetic material!
<Liz Bennett> We have to bear in mind this must be kept simple if info to be easily obtainable and reliable
<Raj Puri> mandibles are kept as trophies, very easy to get a hold of Liz
<Liz Bennett> Yes, but here, you can't give them away (at least in some communities) or dogs will lose
their ability to hunt. (Neat, eh?!)
<Doug Sheil> Okay, Raj, but we had already caught the animal to tag it so we don't really need any more
hair
<Robert Nasi> The tail and the ears.....
<Liz Bennett> We hit that problem when asking for single tooth for cementum ring examination.
<Liz Bennett> What for?
<Robert Nasi> Like in corridas! (sorry for being so silly but I cannot help)
<Raj Puri> Well it would be good to know how many populations of pigs we have, mtDNA might help us
identify separate lineages of herds
<Liz Bennett> Yes, would be very very helpful.
<Evan Blumer> well folks...little Evan must go off and do his official work now.....I've enjoyed chatting with
you and look forward to the next phase....so unless anybody has anything that they need me for...I
kinda have to go
<Robert Nasi> If you're sure of the representativeness of your sampling

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<Raj Puri> Bye $Evan enjoy your holiday!
<Liz Bennett> Bye -- and thanks for all the education on tagging techniques!
<Doug Sheil> (really me) has anyone ever come across this method of 'tagging' that uses chemicals in
bait (I think antibiotics) that can later be detected in samples (teeth?) - the great virtue is that you don’t
need to trap, and can just call in the specimens. Don’t know how practical it really is .... but I was told it
was a method used in bear research ..... (?????? I'm just a plant ecologist remember).
<Liz Bennett> Not heard of it. Sorry, but between us we should be able to make enquiries?
<Evan Blumer> I do....but its kinda long....based on using tetracycline...you know, if you took it as a kid
you have grey teeth sometimes....
<Doug Sheil> Is it a practical field method for pig tracking - I mean could it be?
<Evan Blumer> it is a much more "long term study" kind of a tool I think....the questions that I think we are
after are on a shorter time scale....
<Darmawan Liswanto> Dale and Erik, Pak Nengah just passed me his message (sorry for this
interruption)
<Robert Nasi> Will it work on mature individuals or have you to start with juveniles?
<Doug Sheil> But aren’t all these wait until they're dead approaches working on a similar time scale????
<Dale Withington> Darmawan Liswanto, and the message is...?
<Darmawan Liswanto> he’s just asking how much money that we need for planing meeting and how
long the planning should be taken. He will look through our budget to find it out
<Dale Withington> OK, it sounds as if Pak Nengah [WWF-Sundaland Program] is willing to try to fund a
planning meeting. So now we need a budget. Who has funds for their own participation?
<Raj Puri> next question, let’s list all the potential stations that could serve as monitoring centers.
We'd need them for any phenology data that gets linked to migrations. Lalut Birai, Baritu Ulu,
Danum, Kota Kinabalu, Gunung Palung...
<Darmawan Liswanto> He had sure can spent a cost just for local cost (accomodation and venue)
<Erik Meijaard> Dale, and Robert, shall we get together maybe tomorrow, and discuss a budget for this
meeting? (to be passed on to Darmawan Liswanto)
<Evan Blumer> guys...I do have to go....so if you want more details on this, send me an e-mail, I'll happily
expound... see ya!
<Dale Withington> Tomorrow is hard for me until about 9 p.m. I'll be in Bogor at the Hotel Pangrango I.
Do you want to stop by at 9 p.m. for a beer. I'll probably also be free between 5:30 and 7 p.m., but I will
not know for certain until tomorrow afternoon.
<Erik Meijaard> Can you give me a call Dale, (0251 - 831585) so we discuss this
<Dale Withington> erik, I'll call you between noon and 1:30 p.m. tomorrow.
<Raj Puri> Other places: Wanariset, does Tanjung Puting have permanent plots?
<Darmawan Liswanto> Erik, please let me know ASAP when you and Dale finished the budget
<Darmawan Liswanto> yes they have, and also Betung Kerihun NP WWF have new research station at
Sungai Mentibat area
<Liz Bennett> there's two things here -- monitoring stations where we have phenology data, and "pick up
points" for tags.
<Doug Sheil> Doug here ... before I forget to mention it .... it did occur to me that we will have to think very
very carefully and clearly about just how we want any mega-project to be administered. We will
need a clear and easy system .... but with lots of people and different countries we also have the risk of
a major bureaucratic tangle ...... Any management experts got ideas how we might keep it all neat
and simple but still get the scale and amb
<Raj Puri> Excellent; Liz, I'm thinking of biological research stations with staff and plots that we can link
into

72
<Dale Withington> This will be complicated, and will have to be addressed at the planning meeting.
<Liz Bennett> For this side of border, those plots v v limited (really just Lambir Hills), but would be v easy
to have pick-up points throughout the State.
<Raj Puri> either as collection points (although we'll need many more) or weather stations, plots etc. It will
make good use of these places
<Robert Nasi> The easiest is to start from beginning by splitting the overall activities by outputs, each
output being carried out by one/several partners with a definite budget
<Dale Withington> Yes, we just don't want to think about a logframe right now.
<Darmawan Liswanto> How many people will join the planning meeting
<Robert Nasi> We will still face the modus operandi issue at one stage.....
<Dale Withington> We have something like 18 people on the mailing list for the report from this internet
workshop, but 18 people is getting to be a lot of people for a working workshop.
<Doug Sheil> not a logframe .... something much more looking at the roles and responsibilities people
might be willing to adopt. If there is serious administration we should think who can handle it ......
(however ugh and disagreeable to us carefree scientist types).
<Darmawan Liswanto> Can we decide on when and where the meeting will be hosted
<Liz Bennett> Doug -- Partly the admin, partly who will analyze all the data!
<Erik Meijaard> It's actually 40 people. Dale. I guess we will have to limit ourselves to the keyplayers
<Darmawan Liswanto> I think, all technical and management aspect can be discussed more detail at the
meeting
<Robert Nasi> 18 is not necessarily a lot if you use working groups (migrations, genetic, forest
dynamics)
<Raj Puri> Agreed, laying out the phases of the study will force us to name our outputs and then divvy
them up. One way to get around nationalistic problems is to do this in cooperation with the Asean
Center for Biodiversity Research, but I don't know if that is just a black hole for international funds or
if they actually do something?
<Dale Withington> Doug, I hope a donor doesn't require a logframe. And if we need to get a proposal to
Nengah quickly, what time in the next 6 months is good for a planning meeting and where?
<Robert Nasi> I can get some information on ACBR if you want.
<Liz Bennett> They actually do GIVE money too, but don't know if we'd fit their options.
<Robert Nasi> Dale, a donor will request a logframe....
<Raj Puri> Thanks, I met the ASEAN SEC Gen last year and he assured me they were a serious outfit,
they have an EU operating grant
<Robert Nasi> Is October in Bogor a reasonable choice?
<Erik Meijaard> It would work for Erik and it's a possibility for Doug
<Dale Withington> I was thinking Jakarta/Bogor was a good choice. September probably is better for
Stephan and me, late September or early October.
<Liz Bennett> It would probably work for me (if my input was needed)
<Robert Nasi> In September we're stuck by our Board of Trustees meeting......
<Erik Meijaard> And I guess in the meantime we will be sending the pre-proposal to the donors for
feedback.
<Dale Withington> Robert, that sounds worse than our problems, so perhaps early October (the first
week?) is best.
<Erik Meijaard> Early October then?
<Darmawan Liswanto> it's good for me

73
<Robert Nasi> Tentatively agreed
<Liz Bennett> I'd have to check teaching commitments, but with this much notice, they could be wangled
accordingly.
<Erik Meijaard> Raj???
<Raj Puri> OK, got to run, thanks for a stimulating discussion, Erik and I will work on the pre-proposal is
that correct?
<Erik Meijaard> Yes, I will send you a draft before 1 June.
<Dale Withington> Raj, are you available in early October to attend the planning meeting?
<Robert Nasi> Sounds good... and others will make inputs/comments
<Raj Puri> Sorry, I can't make any commitments for October, I'll be on line though
<Raj Puri> Or possibly patch me in via conference call
<Erik Meijaard> Excellent it sounds like we're getting somewhere!
<Robert Nasi> The great leap forward.....
<Robert Nasi> Is it possible to contact Tim and Margaret to have their (WCS Indonesia) initial feeling?
<Liz Bennett> They seem to be offline at present (I tried to contact them before we chatted last week), but
I'll be meeting them in New York briefly at end of June. Is that too late?
<Robert Nasi> Will we involve Indonesian, Malaysian,etc. research institutions?
<Liz Bennett> I'll try to track them down sooner via NY office if needed!
<Erik Meijaard> So we agree that: 1. Raj and I will write a pre-proposal (funding for this will be
discussed); 2. get feedback from the group on the pre-proposal and background document; 3.
the pre-proposal is distributed to friends in important donor groups; 4. we get together in early
October in Indonesia armed with feedback from donors, if we can; 5. WWF Sundaland will look
into funding this meeting. Any comments
<Dale Withington> Robert, I think Indonesian (LIPI, etc.) and Malaysian research institutions should be
involved.
[Lisa Curran joined, but wasn’t able to communicate]
<Liz Bennett> On Malaysian side, need to involve government institutions too. For permissions, as well
as so they buy into the project. Since at the end of the day, they will be the ones to implement the
recommendations.
<Robert Nasi> Therefore we need to involve them somewhere in the preparation of the pre-proposal
<Dale Withington> Lisa, if you have received any of the discussions from last week, do you have
comments you can make tonight?
<Liz Bennett> Yes, at least run it by them for input and comments. In fact relevant government folks here
already know we're having these discussions (since I have explained my bleary-eyed look in office
next morning!) so would be v easy to follow up.
<Robert Nasi> What about the Philippines?
<Erik Meijaard> Maybe we can discuss my last question concerning the commitments that we have made.
Do we agree on this?
<Robert Nasi> Oui
<Liz Bennett> Yes
<Dale Withington> Yes
<Darmawan Liswanto> fine with me
<Dale Withington> Hans, from Tropenbos, perhaps can be invited to discuss Bearded pig research in the
Philippines.
<Erik Meijaard> Well, that's really all I wanted out of this meeting. I am going to get another beer? Thanks

74
<Dale Withington> Yes, I am tired, too, and hungry, and thirsty.
<Liz Bennett> Maybe once the pre-proposal is written, we should agree what each of us individually
should do with it before Oct.
<Robert Nasi> do what?
<Liz Bennett> Freely tout it round to possible donors, each just working through our own networks?
<Robert Nasi> Should put an earlier deadline....
<Liz Bennett> Or have a co-ordinated list of who approaches whom?
<Robert Nasi> Both
<Darmawan Liswanto> can we make a list of potential donors
<Robert Nasi> Yes but not now (please?)
<Liz Bennett> Now? Or keep in touch by email on this? Maybe with Erik as focal person?
<Erik Meijaard> who knows who in donor town?
<Dale Withington> Between all of us, and our fund-raising counterparts, we can develop a list later.
<Liz Bennett> Agree.
<Dale Withington> Erik, I think you'll do what you can to work on the pre-proposal before you go, then turn
it over to Raj. He can finish it, and send it all of us. by the time we respond, you will be back in Bogor,
so I don't know if we need a focal person until then.
<Liz Bennett> Do we NEED focal person immediately? No urgency for co-ordinating donor list is there, as
long as we're all a little diplomatic?
<Dale Withington> If anyone has any immediate questions, I'll try to answer them in the next 5 weeks,
working closely with you Darmawan Liswanto, since you are working with Nengah.
<Erik Meijaard> Good, let me know what's happening in July
<Dale Withington> So Erik, before you leave, please make sure I have a copy of everyone's email
addresses, which I probably already have in the email you sent to each of us.
<Erik Meijaard> To all, the final report will be distributed by CIFOR and should be in your mailbox in a
couple of weeks time
<Dale Withington> Thanks to everyone who participated. I look forward to reconvening another "chat"
perhaps in July, and then with luck, a sit-down meeting in October
<Liz Bennett> Erik -- sounds good. I'll be off-line from 14 June for a week (cold and wet New Zealand!),
but otherwise am "around".
<Erik Meijaard> Well, it just leaves it up to me to thank you all very much for joining (it is really awfully
boring to be on a chat channel; on your own)
<Dale Withington> Erik, I'll talk to you tomorrow, and perhaps you, as well, Robert, and Doug?
<Doug Sheil> Great to see this in action but I look forward to getting home now ........ good night all!!!!!
<Darmawan Liswanto> Bye folks, thank you to give me information on bearded pig
<Robert Nasi> You can always talk to me, I am a very nice and available person..... and this time I'm
leaving for good.
<Liz Bennett> Good night all, and I look forward actually to meeting you all and putting faces to names in
October!