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Pastoral Counselling
in Multi-Cultural Contexts
Emmanuel Y. Lartey, PhD
SUMMARY. This article explores ways in which pastoral counselling re-
flects cultural preferences. By reference to Western, Asian and African
contexts it shows how culture affects what is accepted and practised as
counselling. Four views of multi-cultural society are presented and
critiqued. An trinitarian, inter-cultural approach to pastoral counselling is
proposed that promotes respect for the universal, cultural and unique as-
pects of all persons. Each of these three elements needs attention and must be
held together in creative, dynamic tension. [Article copies available for a fee from
The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address:
<getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> © 2002 by
The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
KEYWORDS. Pastoral counselling, Asia, Africa, intercultural
Pastoral counselling means different things in different communities.
As such in order to undertake an adequate exploration of pastoral counsel-
ling in multi-cultural contexts it is necessary firstly to seek some under-
An earlier version of this article was previously published.
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Pastoral Counseling in Multi-Cultural Contents.” Lartey, Emmanuel
Y. Co-published simultaneously in American Journal of Pastoral Counseling (The Haworth Pastoral Press, an
imprint of The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 5, No. (3/4), 2002, pp. 317-329; and: International Perspectives on
Pastoral Counseling (ed: James Reaves Farris) The Haworth Pastoral Press, an imprint of The Haworth Press,
Inc., 2002, pp. 317-329. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Docu-
ment Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address:
getinfo@haworthpressinc.com].
2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 317
standing of the nature and meaning of pastoral counselling in different
cultural contexts. It is important to realise that the roots of pastoral
counselling in very many cultural contexts lie in the healing and restor-
ative rituals and arts practised by priest-healers within their traditions
in the past and to some extent, the present. The traditional healer often
combined the roles of priest and physician. He or she was the one to
whom folk went in times of difficulty. The expectation was of words
and rites grounded in culture, world-view and belief that were deemed
efficacious in bringing relief and restoration to functioning order. The
traditional healer had to be knowledgeable concerning a wide range of
physical, emotional, social and cultural phenomena.
Modern day western pastoral counsellors may appear very different
from their historical predecessors. The understanding of what it is they
are engaged in may also be radically different. Nevertheless, it is true
that the needs, expectations and desires for relief of anxiety that propel
people into counselling relationships today, share several similar fea-
tures with those in the past. It is also the case that in virtually all areas of
the world currently, people seek out others they believe have some
knowledge, expertise or power that they understand might help them in
their quest for relief, well-being or meaning in life. In this article we first
examine some understandings and meanings of pastoral counselling in
different cultural settings. We then examine different forms of pastoral
counselling in multi-cultural contexts. The essay ends with a proposal of
an intercultural approach that I believe might offer helpful insights for
pastoral counsellors. Since most of us work in situations where we are
called upon to interact across cultural boundaries such an approach of-
fers an orienting principle that might facilitate our work.
PASTORAL COUNSELLING IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Pastoral counselling can and has been understood in a variety of ways. I
have elsewhere presented five distinct understandings that appear in west-
ern contexts (Lartey,1997, pp. 73-78).
(1) There is a secular usage in educational settings in Britain in which
‘pastoral’ counselling focuses on the welfare or well-being of students and
the personal, social and moral developmental issues faced by pupils in
school. Pastoral tutors in schools and colleges seek, through counselling
and other means of communication, to facilitate the personal growth and
welfare of their students. (2) There is the exclusive focus of the term upon
the counselling work of ordained clergypersons. Here, pastoral counsel-
318 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON PASTORAL COUNSELING
ling refers only to what the clergy do when they offer guidance or
counsel to parishioners or others who seek their help. (3) Pastoral
counselling may also refer to counselling with a broadly religious
frame of reference or counselling which unlike other forms does not
equate religion with pathology but rather seeks to take into account clients
and counsellors religious sentiments. (4) Pastoral counselling is also seen
as counselling offered within or by a community of faith. On this view,
groups or individuals within or else representing a particular faith commu-
nity, work with individuals or groups in accordance with the beliefs of
their community’s faith. An example of this would be Christian counsel-
ling or counselling which seeks to base its theory and practice exclusively
on the Bible and the tenets of evangelical Christianity may also be de-
scribed as a form of pastoral counselling. (5) When counselling focuses on
the whole rather than specific aspects of a person’s experience (e.g., emo-
tions or cognitive functioning) then the qualifier ‘pastoral’ in pastoral
counselling refers to the whole person. Here the pastoral counsellor is
concerned for the total well being of a person mentally, physically, emo-
tionally, spiritually and socially. Such a person would not, of course, offer
everything on his or her own. They often work alongside others and have
recourse to referral as a means of enabling attention to specific needs.
Their overall aim is for holistic health that ignores or minimises no aspect
of this.
Wicks and Estadt (1993) edited a book entitled Pastoral Counselling in
a Global church: Voices from the field in which the work of pastoral coun-
sellors from ten different countries, namely Venezuela, Panama, Kenya,
Malawi, Zambia, Ghana, Thailand, Korea, Australia and the Netherlands,
is presented. What is clear in this text is that all the writers have found it
necessary to modify the western-based training they have received with its
assumptions and presuppositions in order to relate in culturally different
contexts. Ghanaian pastoral theologian Ghunney, for example declares,
After completing the Masters Program in Pastoral Counselling at
Loyola College in Maryland, where I learned many theories in counsel-
ling, I returned home to Ghana in West Africa with the hope of practic-
ing the theories I had learned in the West. I realised, however, that
though the theories I learned were good ones, most of them were not
practicable in Ghana. The only way I could succeed in the counselling
situations there was to contextualize and graft what I had learned with
the Ghanaian culture. (in Wicks & Estadt, 1993, p. 82)
Emmanuel Y. Lartey 319
Counselling which has developed in the west, by and large, is individu-
alistic, rationalistic and promotes the self (ego) above all else
(Lambourne, 1974; Wilson, 1988; Halmos, 1965). This is in line with a
system of thought that is essentially materialistic which places the highest
value on the acquiring of measurable objects. Colin Lago and Joyce
Thompson (1996) in a useful book entitled Race, Culture and Counselling
attempt to assist counsellors understand the different underlying philosophies
that inform non-western approaches to helping and counselling. They (p. 86)
argue that western forms of knowledge have tended to be external, the result
of counting and measuring with the knower distancing themselves from the
object to be known. On the other hand, Asian conceptual systems tend to
emphasise cosmic unity and place much value on the cohesiveness of the
group. Both inner and external ways of knowing are important and the aim is
the integration of body, mind and spirit that are considered to be different as-
pects of the same oneness (1996: 86).
African systems are often based on a spiritual (or supernatural) and
pragmatic ontology that places value on relationality. Knowledge is ac-
quired through intuition and revelation that comes through ritual, symbol
and rhythm. The focus of African healing and counselling then is the rela-
tionship between and among persons whose intrinsic worth is to be found
through the network of spiritual and familial relationships within which
they are embedded. With regard particularly to African and Caribbean
contexts reference has been made, within the context of pastoral counsel-
ling, to the pervasive nature of religion and transcendence in all of life.
There is little or no separation between a ‘sacred’ and a ‘secular’ realm.
All of life is both sacred and secular. These beliefs are expressed most
clearly in rituals that are meant to foster and enhance harmonious relations
between humans and with the unseen world of ancestors, gods and spirits.
Rites and rituals emphasise the importance of symbolic representation and
celebration. This is evident also among African Americans and other
diasporan African communities (Smith, 1997). For most traditional Afri-
can and Caribbean peoples, dreams have great significance because they
may be avenues through which the really important issues of life may be
communicated to persons. Attention within this context is paid to a plural-
ity of practitioners of the healing arts that include traditional
priest-healers, herbalists, ritualists as well as diviners, dancers and cre-
ative artists. All creative performers are seen as having a part to play in the
processes of healing. The pastoral counsellor is seen as part of a commu-
nity of healers. Life as such is experienced and conceptualised in holistic
and synthetic ways (Lartey, 1993; Mulrain, 1995).
320 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON PASTORAL COUNSELING
Masamba ma Mpolo (in Masamba & Nwachuku, 1991) argues that
illness in Africa may be thought of as having spiritual or else relational
causes. This is in line with cosmologies that emphasise the inter-rela-
tionships between the seen and the unseen world. As such illness may
be ascribed either to bewitchment, the anger of mistreated and of-
fended spiritual forces, possession by an alien spirit or to broken hu-
man relations. Masamba therefore suggests that spiritual means
including ‘through ecstasy, rituals and symbolic representations’ (p.
28) need to be adopted in helping people deal with their emotional and
psychological needs.
Berinyuu (1989) attempts to be deeply rooted in the therapeutic prac-
tices and interpretations of the peoples of Africa while dialoguing criti-
cally with and attempting to integrate western forms of healing. He
defines a pastoral counsellor in Africa as a ‘shepherding divine who care-
fully guides a sheep through a soft muddy spot’ (p. 12). Berinyuu’s model
of the pastoral counsellor is essentially that of one who is adept at harness-
ing the African ‘spirit-filled’ universe as well as culturally recognizable
symbolic forms of interaction such as storytelling, myths and proverbs,
dance, drama and music, in the quest for appropriate responses to the exi-
gencies of life. Such a view could be said to be representative of, in broad
terms, an essentially African picture of a pastoral counsellor.
Clearly then, the inclusion of spiritual and cultural resources as pivotal
to the work of the counsellor is a distinguishing feature of pastoral coun-
selling. Moreover, in different geographical areas and contexts what is
needed is the freedom to recognise what is of value in their historic tradi-
tions, to reject what after careful contextual and contemporary examina-
tion proves ineffective, and the skill to initiate new syntheses out of the
blending and clashing of the different cultures which make up most of
contemporary societies.
It is as such true that all forms of counselling are inseparable from cul-
tural assumptions and biases. Different cultural systems appropriately find
expression in different therapeutic styles and approaches. In view of this it is
reasonable to argue that effective pastoral counselling practice involves re-
flection on the significance of both the counsellor’s and the client’s cultural
world for the therapeutic process. In what follows we will critically exam-
ine a number of different models of multi-cultural society and the form of
counselling that emerge on those assumptions.
MODELS OF PASTORAL COUNSELLING
IN PLURALISTIC PLACES
Emmanuel Y. Lartey 321
Monoculturalism
Basic maxim: ‘We are all really the same.’
The monoculturalist basically claims to work in a ‘colour-blind, cul-
ture-free’ way. For such a counsellor little or no attention is paid to differ-
ences that arise from cultural or social background. The overriding
assumption is that all human persons in a given situation are basically the
same. Most often what such workers accept are the presuppositions of the
particular theoretical position that under girds their approach to counsel-
ling. They proceed on the basis of these presuppositions often with little
critique or question. Seldom do they raise the question of cultural ‘fit.’ As
such they unwittingly insist upon the core values and cultural norms of the
particular class or social group represented by the theory they espouse.
Monoculturalism therefore in spite of suggestions to the contrary is
not neutral. Two aspects of this unwitting non-neutrality are apparent.
Firstly, it universalises particular sets of norms, values, cultural beliefs
and practices. Everyone regardless of preference or background is as-
sumed or expected to function in accord with these universals. In this re-
gard the ‘white western’ and sub-cultures akin to it is regarded as the
norm to which all must conform. In terms of pastoral counselling the
‘tried and tested’ person-centred values of humanistic counselling bap-
tised with healthy doses of liberal western theology become the underly-
ing premises upon which the practice of universal pastoral counselling is
based. Secondly, it at best, denies and at worst suppresses cultural ex-
pressions that do not appear to conform to this mould. Difference is
equated to deviance and is denied, suppressed or forced into conformity.
An example of this would be any form of counselling that appears direc-
tive. Such would be seen as inappropriate, oppressive or outdated. Prac-
titioners of such abominable arts as ‘advising’ or ‘informing’ are
shunned or else offered courses in counselling skills.
Pastoral counselling in a monoculturalist framework has tended to take
the form of an insistence upon privacy, intimacy, confidentiality and sur-
rogacy. Such counselling usually takes place in one-to-one sessions held
in the privacy of the ‘pastor’s office.’ It is premised upon the ability of cli-
ents and counsellors to self-disclose and to be articulate, autonomous, in-
dependent and self-directing–the predominant values of secular western
society. The point is that these values are assumed to be normative in all
‘civilized societies.’
322 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON PASTORAL COUNSELING
While pastoral counselling as described is of value for many in western
society it must not be assumed to be so for all in multicultural societies in
the west. The next approach to be described takes cultural difference more
seriously.
Cross-Culturalism
Basic maxim: ‘They are totally different from us’
Pluralism is the credo of the cross-culturalist. Cross-cultural work in
counselling based on cross-cultural psychology. The latter sought, from
its inception in the 1960s and early 1970s, to study and respond to cultural
variations in behaviour in a bid to validate or replicate generalisations
about human behaviour based on white European or American studies.
Studies undertaken in Europe or America were suitably modified and then
undertaken in other parts of the world in order to ascertain the extent to
which these generalisations were valid.
Cross-culturalists recognise cultural difference. Such difference is lo-
cated in social groups that are constituted on the bases of identifiable
physical, geographical or cultural characteristics. There are three sets of
ideas that seem to be uppermost in the thinking of those who take this approach
to the multi-cultural reality. Firstly, the very fact of difference– namely the
recognition that real difference exists between groups of people in a soci-
ety. That we are not all the same. Secondly, the view that the boundaries
around groups are fixed, unalterable and to a degree impenetrable must be
taken into consideration. Third, that each group has an identity that is
shared by all who belong to the group. Identity is viewed as a bond that as-
sociates all who share it. It ties members together in a collective unity of
homogeneity. Every member so identified is like everyone else within the
social bond.
One of the pioneers of cross-cultural pastoral counselling is American
Mennonite David Augsburger. In a very useful book entitled Pastoral
Counseling across cultures (Augsburger, 1986) he argues for the need for
‘culturally capable pastoral counsellors’ who have the ‘ability to join
another in his or her culture while fully owning one’s own’ (p. 19).
Augsburger’s aim is to assist in training culturally able counsellors who
are at home on the boundary, able to cross over effectively into another
culture with deep ‘interpathic’ understanding and then return to their own.
Howard Clinebell, in the Foreword to the book captures this vision
clearly:
Emmanuel Y. Lartey 323
Crossing over to another culture with openness and reverence and
then coming back is the spiritual adventure of our time, according to
David Augsburger. In his view, crossing over with this mind-set and
heart-set enables one to return to one’s own culture enriched, more
aware, more humble, and more alive. In a real sense, the power of
this book is that it can enable us as readers to cross over, experience a
stunning array of diverse cultural realities, and then return home with
the treasure and growth-in-personhood that comes from interpathic
caring in different worlds. (p.10)
Augsburger offers much that is of value and use in the encounter across
cultures. However there is a fundamental problem that emerges when one
adopts this mentality. The difficulty is that it encourages a ‘them’ and ‘us’
mentality that creates problems in any pluralistic society. It is we (invari-
ably the dominant, white European/American) who cross over to them
(the ‘rest’) and then return. We do things to them. We learn about them.
They are different from us. The unconscious assumption is that the coun-
sellor belongs to the dominant majority and the client/patient to the other.
The problem is highlighted for me as a Black African pastoral counsellor
in Britain–am I part of the ‘we’ or the ‘them’ on such reckoning?
Moodley and Dhingra (1998) have recently commented usefully on the
complexity of the relationship between counsellor and client when the
counsellor is of ethnic minority extraction. Bearing in mind McLeod’s
(1993) reminder that counselling remains a predominantly white occupa-
tion with relatively few ethnic-minority counsellors they explore the cli-
ent’s choice of counsellor. ‘For white clients the appearance of a black
counsellor may unconsciously evoke certain prejudices and stereotypes
which could lead to the rejection of the counsellor but be interpreted by
the client as not having a right to choose’ (Moodley and Dhingra, 1998, p.
296). They examine white clients’ strategies in accepting black counsel-
lors and black counsellors’ strategies in managing the relationship. By ex-
ploring the questions of ‘race’ in therapy and facing up creatively to issues
of difference, perception and expectation, they argue that white client and
black counsellor ‘can develop a rich environment for effective and cre-
ative therapeutic outcomes’ (p. 299).
A very real danger in the cross-cultural approach is the encouragement
of division through the essentialising of cultural difference. Essentialising
occurs when we make particular characteristics the only true or real ex-
pressions of a people. The assumption is that there exists an authentic Af-
rican, Asian, African-Caribbean or Black other who is totally different
from the dominant one’s own cultural experience. The ‘exotic’ other only
324 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON PASTORAL COUNSELING
exists in the imagination and fantasy of the person within the dominant
culture. This way of thinking leads to stereotyping and is related to the
over-emphasis of cultural difference. It fails to recognise the mutual influ-
ence of cultures within multi-cultural societies.
In terms of pastoral care, the identity and difference of the ‘other’ is re-
cognised as sacred and advocated for by carers and counsellors from the
dominant culture. These brave souls become the ‘experts’ on ‘the Asian
community’ or the Black community. They then become spokespersons
for these cultural groups and inform the rest of the dominant group, reliev-
ing them of any responsibility to get involved themselves in the difficult
business of cross-cultural encounter. In one sense these cultural infor-
mants vicariously bear the vulnerabilities of members of the dominant
culture who leave them to get on with it. From time to time members of the
subaltern groups who successfully manage to cross over in the other direc-
tion become incorporated as token representatives of their cultures and ev-
idence of the liberalism, kindness and tolerance of the dominant group.
Cross-culturalism represents a serious and valuable critique of
monoculturalism’s presumption of universal values. Nevertheless it operates
on the basis of a flawed overemphasis on the identity, difference and homoge-
neity of other cultural or ethnic groups. While cross-culturalism
over-emphasises difference, educational multi-culturalism, which we will
now discuss, over-simplifies cultural difference for the purpose of quick and
easy encounter.
Educational Multi-Culturalism
Basic maxim: ‘Aren’t they interesting: We need to learn as much as
we can about them.’
The fundamental premise upon which this approach is based is the need
for accurate and detailed information to provide the basis for relevant pol-
icy and social action. If appropriate services are to be provided for a multi-
cultural society, it would make sense for the nature and needs of the
various cultural groups to be properly understood. Healthy
‘race-relations’ within any community must be based on knowledge and
information about the groups constituting the community. The approach
to the multi-cultural society favoured here is that of ‘facts and figures’ as
providing the necessary tools for effective action. As such an attempt is
made to build profiles of the various ethnic communities in the society
which seek to give information about, for example, social customs, reli-
Emmanuel Y. Lartey 325
gious rites, food habits, leisure activities, family patterns, gender roles,
education and housing within each group.
In Britain of the 1990s ethnic monitoring questionnaires represent, in a
crude form, this approach to the multicultural society. It certainly goes
some way in providing information. However, the information generated
in such ways is too often understood in a reductionistic and individualised
way. It thus becomes fuel for cultural, ethnic, religious or other forms of
stereotyping. Stereotyping involves perceiving and treating any particular
individual member of a cultural group as bearing the presumed character-
istics of that group. Stereotyping homogenises groups creating expecta-
tions of sameness among all who are classified as belonging to a group.
Some attempts at multi-cultural education for counsellors and pastoral
carers in an attempt at informing them about ‘ethnic minority clients’ per-
petuate stereotypical myths concerning, for example, the angry under-
achieving Caribbean male; the Asian young woman’s oppressive cultural
role; the aggressive Muslim or the problems of the Asian extended family
system.
Along with categorising often goes placing in hierarchical order. Cul-
tural groups are tacitly or at times explicitly placed in order of preference
or value on particular characteristics. In such rankings the social or cul-
tural group to which the one classifying belongs usually comes out on top.
Moreover there is an accompanying presumption that particular cultures
are fixed or in some sense static.
Educational multi-culturalism then adopts a commendable information-
based, scientific-data oriented approach to the multi-cultural. However, like
cross-culturalism, it fails to avoid stereotyping, reductionism, individualis-
ing, placing groups in hierarchical order and perpetuating myths that where
imbibed can induce self-hatred within the sub-dominant groups. Educa-
tional multi-culturalism is often led by media, consumer, tourist, quick fix
or market considerations. Busy pastoral counsellors wish to be able rapidly
to obtain the information they need to enable them visit or counsel their eth-
nic minority clients. So they turn to these manuals of information as they
would to tourist guides. The problem is the gross oversimplification of the
cultural that can mislead and distort any real human relationships to be
found therein.
Pastoral counsellors who operate on such premises are often sensitive
and caring persons who seek as much information as they can obtain in or-
der not to offend or act inappropriately with the cultural other. However
what is lost in a dependence on this information is the spontaneity and sen-
sitivity that is a sine qua non of genuine human interaction. ‘For pastoral
care to be real it has to arise in the midst of genuine human encounter
326 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON PASTORAL COUNSELING
where carer and cared for are both vulnerable and open.’ (Lartey, 1998, p.
49).
Intercultural Pastoral Counselling
Basic Maxim: ‘Every human person is in some respects (a) like all
others (b) like some others (c) like no other.’
In order to gain a fuller understanding of human persons within the
global community, it is necessary to explore the ways in which culture, in-
dividual uniqueness and human characteristics work together to influence
persons. Kluckholn and Murray’s (1948) phrase quoted above captures
these three spheres of influence that act simultaneously in the experience
of every human person. By ‘human characteristics’ (we are all like all oth-
ers) refer to that which all humans as humans share such as physiological,
cognitive and psychological capabilities, with all the common human
variations. The ‘cultural’ (we are like some others) refers to characteristic
ways of knowing, interpreting and valuing the world which we receive
through the socialisation processes we go through in our social groupings.
These include worldviews, values, preferences and interpretive frames as
well as language, customs and forms of social relationship. The ‘individ-
ual’ (like no other) or personal indicates that there are characteristics–both
physical (e.g, finger-print and dental configuration) and
psychosocial–which are unique to individuals.
These spheres of human experience interact constantly in living human
persons who continually learn, grow and change. Intercultural pastoral
counsellors seek to work with persons in the light of these
pre-suppositions and realisations. In any pastoral counselling encounter
three kinds of issues are attended to by the intercultural pastoral counsel-
lor. Firstly, there is an attempt to inquire what of the common experience
we all share as human persons is to be found in the particular situation in
question. The attempt here is in recognition and affirmation of the fact that
all human beings are created in and reflect the image of God. The assump-
tion therefore is that in spite of variations, ambiguities and differences
there will be evidence of humanity in all pastoral counselling encounters.
Second, there will be an attempt to figure out what in the experience being
dealt with is the result of social and cultural forces. Attention will need to
be paid to specific socio-cultural views and practices relevant to the social
group the counselling partner recognises as their own. Carter’s ‘Racially
Inclusive model of psychotherapy’ offers many useful insights in this re-
spect (Carter, 1995). What would need to be encouraged would be an af-
Emmanuel Y. Lartey 327
firmative as well as self-critical and open exploration of these cultural
views and practices in an attempt to discover their influence upon the issue
being examined. Within multi-cultural environments, the influence of other
cultures than one’s own will need to be investigated. Questions of power,
domination, benefit and suffering are of particular poignancy here. Third, in
intercultural pastoral counselling attempts will be made to investigate what
in the experience could be said to be uniquely attributable to the personal
characteristics of the counselling partner.
At various moments in any pastoral encounter one or other of these as-
pects of our humanity will be the focus of attention. Nevertheless,
intercultural pastoral counselling will always have the other aspects in
view and seek to hold all three in creative and dynamic tension. On such a
Trinitarian and communitarian view and vision the relational character of
the three Persons of the Godhead is never lost sight of. As such the ‘uni-
versal,’ the cultural and the personal in all human persons are attended to
on their own while also being seen as in creative and dynamic interaction
with each other.
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Carter, R.T. (1995) The Influence of Race and Racial Identity in Psychotherapy, New
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Ghunney, J. (1993) ‘Ghana’ in R.J. Wicks and B.K. Estadt, (eds), Pastoral Counselling in
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