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Localization in the ganglion semilunare of the cat
... The trigeminal ganglion of mammals, the so-called semilunar ganglion or Gasserian ganglion, is a single cell aggregate which gives rise to the three primary branches of the trigeminal nerve. The mammalian trigeminal ganglion has been considered as organized somatotopically in a mediolateral direction reflecting the mediolateral order of the three primary nerve branches [Allen, 1924;Kerr and Lysak, 1964;Marfurt, 1981;Marfurt et al., 1989;Oyagi et al., 1989]. Furthermore, in mammals as in birds the maxillary and mandibular divisions are also organized in the dorsoventral direction within the ganglion [Marfurt, 1981]. ...
... The latter type is reported in reptiles [Molenaar, 1978a;Kishida et al., 1982], and cyclostomes [Koyama et al., 1987;Nishizawa et al., 1988]. The former is seen in birds [Hamburger, 1961;Dubbeldam and Veenman, 1978;D'Amico-Martel and Noden, 1980;Noden, 1980a, b] and mammals [Allen, 1924;Kerr and Lysak, 1964;Marfurt, 1981;Marfurt et al., 1989;Oyagi et al., 1989]. The morphology of the trigeminal ganglion of tilapia is different from that seen in cyclostomes and reptiles. ...
... These studies show that cells of the ophthalmic ganglion part give rise to the ophthalmic nerve and the cells of the maxillo-mandibular part give origin to the maxillary and mandibular nerves. The trigeminal ganglion of mammals, the so-called semilunar ganglion or Gasserian ganglion, is a single cell aggregate organized somatotopically with two axes and each of three primary nerve branches originate separately from the ganglion [Allen, 1924;Marfurt, 1981;Oyagi et al., 1989]. The overall morphology of the trigeminal ganglion in tilapia is similar to those of bird and mammalian ganglia, although the axis of somatotopic organization in the ganglion is different (see next section). ...
Somatotopic organization of the trigeminal ganglion is known in some vertebrates. The precise pattern of somatotopy, however, seems to vary in different vertebrate groups. Furthermore, the somatotopic organization remains to be studied in teleosts. From an evolutionary point of view, the morphology and somatotopic organization of the trigeminal ganglion of a percomorph teleost, Tilapia, were investigated by means of the tract-tracing method using biocytin and three-dimensional reconstruction models with a computer. The trigeminal ganglion was one cell aggregate elongated in the dorsoventral direction, which was separate from the facial and anterior lateral line ganglia. Biocytin applications to the trigeminal nerve root labeled ordinary ganglion cells in the trigeminal ganglion and a few displaced trigeminal ganglion cells in the facial ganglion. Biocytin applications to three primary branches (the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular nerves) revealed that trigeminal ganglion cells were somatotopically distributed in the ganglion reflecting the dorsoventral order of the three branches. Ganglion cells of the ophthalmic nerve were distributed in the dorsal part of the trigeminal ganglion, those of the mandibular nerve in the ventral part, and those of the maxillary nerve in the intermediate part. Some of maxillary and mandibular ganglion cells appear to overlap in their boundary region, whereas ophthalmic ganglion cells did not intermingle with ganglion cells of other branches. Labeled-primary fibers terminated in the sensory trigeminal nucleus, descending trigeminal nucleus, medial funicular nucleus, a ventral part of the facial lobe, reticular formation, and trigeminal motor nucleus. Labeled cells were observed in the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus and the trigeminal motor nucleus. The results suggest that the morphology and somatotopic organization of the trigeminal ganglion of tilapia are similar to those of mammals, except that the axis of the somatotopic organization of the ganglion in mammals is a mediolateral direction reflecting the mediolateral order of the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular nerves.
... 52,56,58,62 Study of TG somatotopy has been carried out using a variety of methods and techniques, including microelectrode recording, 56,57,[63][64][65] retrograde cell tracing, 58,66-72 3D reconstruction of the TG, 58,71 dissection, 65,73 and electron microscopy. 73 Animal models that have been studied include monkeys, 56,64,65,68,69 cats, 56,57,63,66,67,74 baboons, 69 rabbits, 58 guinea pigs, 70 rats, 72 and even cichlid fish. 71 The consensus in the literature is that the TG can be consistently subdivided into 3 functional parts from a mediolateral orientation that reflects the entry points of divisions V1eV3. ...
... These neurones then activate other brain areas leading to paroxysmic boutades of perceived pain, pathognomonic of the TGN, in the absence of any causal noxious factor. 84 Therefore, understanding how the human TG is somatotopically organized is clinically important in terms of more precisely treating TN. 58,66,76 A study by Allen 66 expands on this idea by describing how awareness of functional distribution in the TG optimizes surgical outcomes (e.g., precise obliteration of an offending maxillary region in the TG with preservation of the ophthalmicmaxillary zones removes the TN pain and leaves the eyelid reflex intact), which is crucial to prevent blindness over time. ...
Background
The anatomy and spatial relationships of the dural sac comprising Meckel’s cave (MC) and its ensheathed trigeminal ganglion (TG) are exceedingly intricate and complex. There are conflicting accounts in the literature regarding the dural configuration of MC around the ganglion and the dual embryology of MC and the TG is still somewhat unclear.
Methods
A combined systematic and narrative literature review was conducted to collate publications addressing MC and TG anatomy, in addition to their embryology, role in tumour spread, somatotopy and association with trigeminal neuralgia.
Results
Three key anatomical models by Paturet (1964), Lazorthes (1973) and Lang and Ferner (1983) have been put forward to illustrate the arrangement of MC around the TG. The TG is formed from both neural crest and placodal cells and drags the enveloping dura caudally to form the MC prolongation during development. Both a medio-lateral and dorso-ventral somatotopic arrangement of neurons exists in the TG which corresponds to the three nerve divisions, of which V2 and V3 are prone to perineural tumour spread along their course.
Conclusions
A sound knowledge concerning the dural arrangement of MC and the trigeminal divisions will be invaluable in optimally treating cancers in this region, and understanding TG somatotopy will immensely improve treatment of trigeminal neuralgia in terms of specificity, efficacy and positive patient outcomes.
... Counts of unmyelinated fibres are difficult as the axons are closely packed together in groups and it is difficult to distinguish individual axons [95]. Studies from the 1920s show that the trigeminal nerve contains ~ 10% unmyelinated axons in the cat [96], and ~ 20-40% in the dog [95]. The percentage of unmyelinated fibres is estimated to be 12-20% in human motor root [97], but may very well be higher in the sensory root which contains small, nociceptive unmyelinated C-fibers [98]. ...
The glial cells of the primary olfactory nervous system, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), are unusual in that they rarely form tumors. Only 11 cases, all of which were benign, have been reported to date. In fact, the existence of OEC tumors has been debated as the tumors closely resemble schwannomas (Schwann cell tumors), and there is no definite method for distinguishing the two tumor types. OEC transplantation is a promising therapeutic approach for nervous system injuries, and the fact that OECs are not prone to tumorigenesis is therefore vital. However, why OECs are so resistant to neoplastic transformation remains unknown. The primary olfactory nervous system is a highly dynamic region which continuously undergoes regeneration and neurogenesis throughout life. OECs have key roles in this process, providing structural and neurotrophic support as well as phagocytosing the axonal debris resulting from turnover of neurons. The olfactory mucosa and underlying tissue is also frequently exposed to infectious agents, and OECs have key innate immune roles preventing microbes from invading the central nervous system. It is possible that the unique biological functions of OECs, as well as the dynamic nature of the primary olfactory nervous system, relate to the low incidence of OEC tumors. Here, we summarize the known case reports of OEC tumors, discuss the difficulties of correctly diagnosing them, and examine the possible reasons for their rare incidence. Understanding why OECs rarely form tumors may open avenues for new strategies to combat tumorigenesis in other regions of the nervous system.
... It is important to underlie that even in this case, the sampling is not restricted to the maxillary neurons because, in rodents, the maxillary division is not anatomically distinguishable from the ophthalmic one. The ophthalmicmaxillary division appears like a cephalic-median area, blocked in by parallel lines and occupying about two-thirds or more of the ganglion (Allen, 1924), while the mandibular one is located postero-laterally and it is characterized by cells clustered in a lateral protuberance (Shellhammer, 1980) (Figure 3A). ...
Amputation of a sensory peripheral nerve induces severe anatomical and functional changes along the afferent pathway as well as perception alterations and neuropathic pain. In previous studies we showed that electrical stimulation applied to a transected infraorbital nerve protects the somatosensory cortex from the above-mentioned sensory deprivation-related changes. In the present study we focus on the initial tract of the somatosensory pathway and we investigate the way weak electrical stimulation modulates the neuroprotective-neuroregenerative and functional processes of trigeminal ganglia primary sensory neurons by studying the expression of neurotrophins (NTFs) and Glia-Derived Neurotrophic Factors (GDNFs) receptors. Neurostimulation was applied to the proximal stump of a transected left infraorbitary nerve using a neuroprosthetic micro-device 12 h/day for 4 weeks in freely behaving rats. Neurons were studied by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry against RET (proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase “rearranged during transfection”), tropomyosin-related kinases (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC) receptors and IB4 (Isolectin B4 from Griffonia simplicifolia). Intra-group (left vs. right ganglia) and inter-group comparisons (between Control, Axotomization and Stimulation-after-axotomization groups) were performed using the mean percentage change of the number of positive cells per section [100∗(left–right)/right)]. Intra-group differences were studied by paired t-tests. For inter-group comparisons ANOVA test followed by post hoc LSD test (when P < 0.05) were used. Significance level (α) was set to 0.05 in all cases. Results showed that (i) neurostimulation has heterogeneous effects on primary nociceptive and mechanoceptive/proprioceptive neurons; (ii) neurostimulation affects RET-expressing small and large neurons which include thermo-nociceptors and mechanoceptors, as well as on the IB4- and TrkB-positive populations, which mainly correspond to non-peptidergic thermo-nociceptive cells and mechanoceptors respectively. Our results suggest (i) electrical stimulation differentially affects modality-specific primary sensory neurons (ii) artificial input mainly acts on specific nociceptive and mechanoceptive neurons (iii) neuroprosthetic stimulation could be used to modulate peripheral nerve injuries-induced neuropathic pain. These could have important functional implications in both, the design of effective clinical neurostimulation-based protocols and the development of neuroprosthetic devices, controlling primary sensory neurons through selective neurostimulation.
... An exception from this common rule may be observed in the vestibular and spiral ganglia where the bipolar form of the neurons is kept -Van Gehuchten (1897). Two of the authors working on the problems of the trigeminal system and especially on (TrG) in cats Allen (1924) and monkeys Maxwell (1967) in their studies on ultrastructural level show that the (TrG) is a limitant zone situated between the central and the peripheral nervous systems. ...
The trigeminal ganglion (TrG) is built of pseudounipolar neurons, their fibers and satellite cells. Neurons that are different in size have been visualized using electronmicroscopic method. It is particularly interesting that stored pigments are a result of age alterations. Pseudounipolar neurons in (TrG) are sensory cells and they receive nerve impulses from sensory nerve terminals. In conclusion, (TrG) is a related station that receives information, arranges it and transmits the signal to the central nervous system (CNS). percentage the light neurons are considerably higher in comparison with the dark ones which is type-specific. Their higher differentiation comes early, during the ontogenetic development. The darker colour of the small neurons is due to the fact that the Nissl granules are represented bó bigger isles composed by the longer cisterus of the rough endoplasmatic reticulum and dispersed free ribosome in between them. Using imunohistochemistry it is proven that 46% of the small and medium-sized neurons situated in the (TrG) are immunoreactive and have a darker color in tested animals (Ichikawa et al. 2006). They usually occupy the space of the peripheral parts of the ganglion. The differentiation of the small and dark neurons begins later during the ontogenetic development. Beaver (1967) states that "The human (TrG) resembles in common traits the ganglion in mammals as structure. . ."
The trigeminal ganglion is built of pseudounipolar neurons, their fibres and satellite cells. Neurons that are different in size were visualized using light-microscope methods. It is particularly interesting that stored pigments are a result of age alterations. Pseudounipolar neurons in trigerninal ganglion are sensory cells and they receive nerve impulses from sensory nerve terminals. In conclusion, trigeminal ganglion is a related station that receives information, arranges it and transmits the signal to CNS.
The morphology of the trigeminal ganglion in human fetus was investigated by means of the tract-tracing method using the lipophilic dye DiI-C18-(3) (1,1'-double octadecane 3,3,3'3'-tetramethyl indole carbonyl cyanine-perchlorate), hematoxylin-eosin (HE) stain, and three-dimensional computer reconstruction models. The trigeminal ganglion was flat in the dorsoventral direction, and DiI staining revealed that the trigeminal ganglion cells were somatotopically distributed in the ganglion in a way that reflected the mediolateral order of the three branches. Ganglion cells of the ophthalmic nerve were distributed in the anteromedial part of the trigeminal ganglion, those of the mandibular nerve were in the posterolateral part, and those of the maxillary nerve were localized in the intermediate part. DiI labeled both ganglion cells and nerve fibers in the trigeminal ganglion; the ganglion cells varied in size and appeared as round- or oval-shaped, the neurites connected the cell soma, and some bipolar neurons were also observed. The number of embryonic trigeminal ganglion cells did not significantly change with gestational age, but the cell diameter, area, and perimeter significantly increased. The motor root leaves the pons, runs along the sensory root, passes the ventral surface of the ganglion, and finally runs together with the mandibular nerve. The findings reported here elucidate the morphology, development, and somatotopic organization of the trigeminal ganglion and reveal the trigeminal nerve motor root pathway along the trigeminal ganglion and mandibular nerve in the human fetus. Microsc. Res. Tech., 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The trigeminal circuit relays somatosensory input from the face into the central nervous system. In central nuclei, the spatial arrangement of neurons reproduces the physical distribution of peripheral receptors thus generating a somatotopic facial map during development. In mice, the ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular trigeminal nerve branches maintain a somatotopic segregation and generate spatially organized patterns of connectivity within hindbrain target nuclei. To investigate conservation of somatotopic organisation, we compared trigeminal nerve organization in turtle, chick, and mouse embryos. We found that, in the turtle, mandibular and maxillary ganglion neuron rostrocaudal segregation and trigeminal tract somatotopy are similar to mouse. In contrast, chick mandibular ganglion neurons are located rostrally to maxillary neurons, with some intermingling, supporting previous observations (Noden, 1980, J Comp Neurol 190:429-444). This organization results in an inversion of the relative positions and less precise axonal sorting of the maxillary and mandibular branches within the trigeminal tract, as compared to mouse and turtle. Moreover, using the turtle and chick orthologues of Drg11 in combination with Hoxa2 expression and axonal tracings from the periphery, we mapped the chick PrV nucleus position to rhombomere 1, confirming previous studies (Marin and Puelles, 1995, Eur J Neurosci 7:1714-1738) and in contrast to mouse PrV, which mainly maps to rhombomere 2-3 (Oury et al., 2006, Science 313:1408-1413). Thus, somatotopy of trigeminal ganglion and nerve organization is only partially conserved through amniote evolution, possibly in relation to the modification of facial somatosensory structures and morphologies. J. Comp. Neurol., 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was dripped on the scarified left cornea of adult mice. Twentyfour hours later the animals were fixed by vascular perfusion and frozen sections cut from both trigeminal ganglia.
After incubation for peroxidase activity labelled nerve cells were restricted to the medial ophthalmic part of the ganglion ipsilateral to HRP administration. If the scarification was omitted no neuronal labelling was observed. This labelling of the neurons is most probably the result from axonal uptake and subsequent retrograde axonal transport of the tracer.
The similarity in distribution of peroxidase labelled nerve cells and the first ganglionic lesions occurring after instillation of herpes simplex virus in the cornea is pointed out.
Primary afferent neurons that innervate the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in cats were labeled by injecting a 2-5% solution of wheatgerm agglutinin bound to horseradish peroxidase into the joint capsule and capsular tissues in 14 cats and processing the brain stem and trigeminal ganglia using the tetramethylbenzidine method described by Mesulam (1978). The perikarya of ganglion cells that innervate the TMJ ranged in diameter from 15 to 109 microns and were primarily located in the posterolateral portion of the trigeminal ganglion. The central processes of these neurons entered the brain stem in middle pons and were distributed to all portions of the sensory trigeminal nuclei. However, the majority of labeled fibers and greatest density of terminal labeling were observed in the dorsal part of the main sensory nucleus and the subnucleus oralis of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. Very few labeled fibers were observed in the spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve below the obex. However, evidence for axon terminals was consistently observed in laminae I, II, and III of the medullary dorsal horn. These findings concur with physiological evidence showing that information from the TMJ influences neurons in rostral (Kawamura et al., 1967) and in caudal (Broton et al., 1985) portions of the trigeminal sensory nuclei.
Forty adult rats underwent simple transection of one of ten different branches of the maxillary and mandibular nerves. All animals were killed on the tenth postoperative day and the trigeminal ganglia were removed for routine histological processing. After staining for Nissl substance, the positions of chromatolytic perikarya were plotted on overlays of photographic enlargements of serial sections. The percentages of chromatolytic cells for all ganglion regions and all nerve lesions were determined and used to construct histograms. Results showed a series of somatotopic columns arranged longitudinally within the ganglion. The laterally placed cell columns corresponded to lateral fields of orofacial innervation supplied by the auriculo-temporal nerve and branches to the molar teeth. The antero-medial cell columns corresponded to more medial orofacial structures, supplied by the maxillary incisor and external nasal nerves. The dorso-ventral organization was more complex although, in general, intraoral structures were represented in the more ventral nerve-cell masses.
The localization of neuronal cell bodies in the trigeminal ganglion for the pulpal nerves of incisors and first and second molars in the rat was determined by utilization of retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase. Transmedian labeling was found with all teeth, but labeling was greater in the ipsilateral ganglion.
Neurons that provide sensory and motor innervation of extraocular muscles in the monkey have been identified and localized by retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Injections of HRP into individual extraocular muscles of rhesus or pig-tail monkeys labeled pseudounipolar neurons that were localized within the ipsilateral semilunar ganglion. The distribution of labeled neurons within the ganglion was consistent with its somatotopic organization as the majority were found within the ophthalmic subdivision. Absence of labeled neurons within either the trigeminal mesencephalic or spinal nucleus was in agreement with previous findings in the cat (Porter and Spencer, '82). Intracranial transection of the ophthalmic nerve prior to muscle injection eliminated all labeling within the ganglion. These data indicate that the extraocular muscles can be selectively deafferented in order to examine the potential role(s) of proprioception in the neural control of eye movements.
Afferent neurones that provide proprioceptive innervation of extraocular muscles of the cat have been identified by means of retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Discrete injections of HRP into the medial rectus, lateral rectus, or retractor bulbi muscles labeled pseudounipolar neurones that were localized exclusively to the ipsilateral semilunar ganglion. The distribution of labeled neurones within the ganglion was consistent with its somatotopic organization with the majority found within the ophthalmic subdivision. Cell counts indicating approximately 90 labeled neurones per horizontal rectus muscle correlated well with earlier quantitative observations regarding the percentage of afferent fibers in oculomotor nerves and the number of proprioceptive terminals in the extraocular muscles. Neither the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus nor the contralateral semilunar ganglion contained labeled neurones following injections of HRP into extraocular muscles.
Consistent with other studies of spinal and cranial ganglia the contingent of pseudounipolar neurones present in the cat semilunar ganglion included both light and dark cell types. Light and electron microscope analysis of HRP-labeled neurones in combination with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) histochemistry revealed that only one of the two neuronal types, the light cell, subserves extraocular muscle proprioception. Our data support the hypothesis that ganglion neurone type and, more specifically, soma diameter, are important determinants of functional status.
Asphalt fumes have been reported to produce nasal irritation in road workers. Since inhaled irritants can increase substance P (SP) production in airway neurons, the effects of asphalt fumes on SP production in trigeminal ganglia (TG) sensory neurons innervating the nasal mucosa were investigated. The effects of asphalt fumes on nasal mucosal innervation were examined by measuring SP and calcitonin-gene-related peptide (CGRP) levels in rat TG neurons projecting to the nasal epithelium. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to asphalt fumes at 16.0 +/- 8.1mg /m3 for 5 consecutive days, 3.5 h/d. Inflammatory cells were measured in nasal cavity lavage fluid. SP and CGRP immunoreactivity (IR) was measured in the cell bodies of trigeminal ganglion sensory neurons projecting to the nasal cavity. A significant increase in neutrophils and macrophages was observed after asphalt fume exposure indicating an inflammatory response in the nasal cavity. The percentage of SP-IR neurons increased significantly in the asphalt-exposed rats, and the proportion of CGRP-IR neurons was also elevated following asphalt exposure. These results indicate that exposure to asphalt fumes produces inflammation and increases the levels of SP and CGRP in TG neurons projecting to the nasal epithelium. The findings are consistent with asphalt-induced activation of sensory C-fibers in the nasal cavity. Enhanced sensory neuropeptide release from nerve terminals in the nasal cavity may produce neurogenic inflammation associated with nasal irritation following exposure to asphalt fumes.
The investigation, the general results of which are summarised below, was suggested to the author by Professor His, and part of the work was carried on in his laboratory in Leipzig in the summer of 1893. Models were constructed of the cranial nerves in embryos of different ages, and the branches present noted and measured. These models were made up of glass plates, covered with varnish, on which were drawn the outlines of the sections and the positions of the nerves, &c. Detailed descriptions of the fifth nerve branches are given for five different stages of the human embryo, beginning with an embryo of four weeks, at which time merely the three main divisions of the nerve are represented, and ending with one of the eighth week.
I Have elsewhere shown1 that the mode of development of the nerves, both cranial and spinal, of the chick is in all essential points the same as that first described by Balfour2 in the case of the spinal nerves of Elasmobranchs, and subsequently extended by him so as to include the cranial nerves also.3
CONTENTS
I. Introduction.
1. The Anatomy of the Trigeminal Nerve.2. Functional Divisions of the Spinal Trigeminal Tract.3. Blood Supply for the Spinal Trigeminal Tract and Nucleus.II. Clinical Data.
1. Symptom Complex of Occlusion of the Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery.2. Clinical Cases of Its Occlusion.3. Cases with Other Lesions.4. Summary and Discussion of Cases.III. Experimental Work.
1. Introduction.2. Surgical Technic.3. Methods of Experimentation.4. Experimental Results.5. Comment.IV. Conclusions.
I. INTRODUCTION
ANATOMY OF THE TRIGEMINAL NERVE
The trigeminal nerve is composed of a large sensory division whose unipolar cells are in the Gasserian ganglion, and a small motor division distributed entirely through the mandibular branch of the nerve. The skin of the face and the mucous membrane of the mouth, tongue, and nose are supplied by pain, tactile, and thermal fibers which pass into all three branches of the trigeminal nerve;
Thesis (M.A.)--University of Kansas, Anatomy, 1923. Includes bibliographical references.
No Abstract. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/49597/1/1000080110_ftp.pdf
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