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Disaster Waste Characteristics and Radiation Distribution as a Result of the Great East Japan Earthquake
Abstract
The compounded impacts of the catastrophes that resulted from the Great East Japan Earthquake have emphasized the need to develop strategies to respond to multiple types and sources of contamination. In Japan, earthquake and tsunami-generated waste were found to have elevated levels of metals/metalloids (e.g., mercury, arsenic, and lead) with separation and sorting more difficult for tsunami-generated waste as opposed to earthquake-generated waste. Radiation contamination superimposed on these disaster wastes has made it particularly difficult to manage the ultimate disposal resulting in delays in waste management. Work is needed to develop policies a priori for handling wastes from combined catastrophes such as those recently observed in Japan.
... Liquid radioactive waste (LRW) from mining enterprises is even more dangerous pollutants. Such wastewater contains a wide range of associated toxic metals in addition to radioactive elements [26,57]. Obviously, such LRW cannot be recycled. ...
... Huge territories contaminated with radionuclides in the area of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and Fukushima are the examples. The huge volume of radioactive water is also a great problem of purification of such type of water areas [19,57]. ...
... Despite numerous attempts to find a way out of the appeared methodological deadlock, the volume of these four types of waste is continuously increasing in the world [14,23,30,26,56,57]. In our opinion, the lack of effective methodological approach is the reason for such a deplorable state of industrial environmental technologies. ...
Despite the achievements in development of environmental biotechnologies, the total amount of waste is continuously increasing. Development of novel methodological approach is the only possible effective solution of problems. The aim was to develop the base of universal biotechnologies for effective treatment of all four classes of waste and obtain valuable products. To obtain biotechnologically promising results the method of thermodynamic prognosis of microbial interaction with toxic compounds (multi component food waste and filtrate, metal containing wastewater, radioactive waste) was developed. The following results of food waste degradation were obtained: time detention T=6 days, coefficient of waste destruction Kd=90; biohydrogen yield – 120 L from 1 kg of waste. Wastewater treatment provided purification from 10020 to 20 ppm of total Carbon and toxic metals. Purification of liquid radioactive waste allowed several orders decreasing its activity within 4-5 days. These biotechnologies are promising for their industrial implementation in order to stop pollution of environment and preserve ecosystems.
... Accordingly, about 22.5 million tons of radioactively contaminated wastes has been collected from the three major disasterstricken areas of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures in 2012 (Yasunari et al. 2011). During a visit to Japan 5 months after the FDNPP accident, Shibata et al. (2012) pointed out that although many cities had initiated the waste-sorting works, they were still overwhelmed by the huge volumes and lack of experience in handling different types of wastes generated as a result of this accident. ...
... The understanding of distribution and transportation characteristics of 137 Cs in the environment is of great importance. Plenty of works has been reported and simulated the spatial and depth distribution of radiocesium fallout in soils, sediments, plants, and oceans (Chino et al. 2011;Kawamura et al. 2011;Koarashi et al. 2012;Kozai et al. 2012;Nakanishi et al. 2013;Saegusa et al. 2014;Shibata et al. 2012;Tanaka et al. 2013;Yasunari et al. 2011). According to the findings, the radioactive 137 Cs was dispersed from the FDNPP into the Pacific Ocean and across large areas of Japan, including the Tohoku, Kanto, part of Tokai and Hokkaido regions (Chino et al. 2011;Kawamura et al. 2011). ...
... According to the findings, the radioactive 137 Cs was dispersed from the FDNPP into the Pacific Ocean and across large areas of Japan, including the Tohoku, Kanto, part of Tokai and Hokkaido regions (Chino et al. 2011;Kawamura et al. 2011). The soil, animals, plants, architectural structures, and natural waters in these regions were contaminated with radioactive 137 Cs (Koarashi et al. 2012;Kozai et al. 2012;Nakanishi et al. 2013;Saegusa et al. 2014;Sakai et al. 2014;Shibata et al. 2012;Tanaka et al. 2013). Besides, radiocesium had a low volatility and partitions into ambient aerosol particles and it was rapidly attached to aerosols and thus was highly subject to washout removal by rain from the contaminated air (Masson et al. 2011). ...
The radiation contamination after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident attracts considerable concern all over the world. Many countries, areas, and oceans are greatly affected by the emergency situation other than Japan. An effective remediation strategy is in a highly urgent demand. Though plenty of works have been carried out, progressive achievements have not yet been well summarized. Here, we review the recent advances on the remediation of radiocesium-contaminated liquid waste, soil, and ash. The overview of the radiation contamination is firstly given. Afterwards, the current remediation strategies are critically reviewed in terms of the environmental medium. Special attentions are paid on the adsorption/ion exchange and electrically switched ion exchange methods. Finally, the present review outlines the possible works to do for the large-scale application of the novel remediation strategies.
... Extreme weather events, such as precipitation, lightning strikes, runoff, fl ooding, high winds, tornadoes, and coastal surges associated with hurricanes and extreme storms, can cause extensive damage to and contamination of the urban environment (Young et al. 2004). Tsunamis (Shibata et al. 2012) and non-storm-related fl oods triggered by rapid snowmelt or dam/levee failures also bring about damage and contamination. ...
... The devastation generated massive amounts of debris (FIG. 1C) Shibata et al. (2012) found that debris piles were being stored on vacant land, open to air and rainfall. The debris was a complex mix of building materials, electronics, other anthropogenic materials, and sediments. ...
... Given that the removal and sorting of debris in coastal cities is projected to take several years, additional environmental testing on the debris is warranted. Examples include (1) leach tests using simulated landfi ll-leachate fl uids (suggested by Shibata et al. 2012) and simulated coastal rainfall leachates containing elevated chloride (to examine leaching of chloride-complexed metals), (2) characterization of organic contaminants (e.g. from damaged oil refi neries or other industrial facilities), and (3) characterization of sediments in the debris to test for possible acid-generating iron sulfi des. ...
History abounds with accounts of cities that were destroyed or significantly damaged by natural or anthropogenic disasters,
such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, wildland–urban wildfires, hurricanes, tsunamis, floods, urban firestorms, terrorist
attacks, and armed conflicts. Burgeoning megacities place ever more people in the way of harm from future disasters. In addition
to the physical damage, casualties, and injuries they cause, sudden urban disasters can also release into the environment
large volumes of potentially hazardous materials. Environmental and medical geochemistry investigations help us to (1) understand
the sources and environmental behavior of disaster materials, (2) assess potential threats the materials pose to the urban
environment and health of urban populations, (3) develop strategies for their cleanup/disposal, and (4) anticipate and mitigate
potential environmental and health effects from future urban disasters.
... Also, oil spills from storage tanks and widespread fires occurred in the affected area (Hiroi et al. 2012;Tanaka 2012, Fig. 1). Several reports have shown that huge amounts of a wide range of pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (Bird and Grossman 2011), metals (Shibata et al. 2012), radioactive compounds (Qiu et al. 2016), PAHs, and alkPAHs (Kanaya et al. 2014(Kanaya et al. , 2016 Ministry of the Environment 2011) were released into the coastal area and the surrounding sea. Limited environmental monitoring using bivalves has been conducted (Kanaya et al. 2016;Onozato et al. 2016), but further field studies are required. ...
... Huge amounts of debris and associated chemical compounds were transported from the land to the coastal areas by the tsunami that followed the Great East Japan Earthquake (Okada et al. 2011;Onozato et al. 2016;Shibata et al. 2012). The earthquake and tsunami triggered many serious and widespread fires, especially in Sendai and Ishinomaki, in Miyagi Prefecture (Hiroi et al. 2012). ...
We investigated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution of the intertidal and supratidal zone using the wharf roach (Ligia sp.) as a novel environmental indicator. PAH and alkylated PAH (alkPAH) concentrations in wharf roaches collected from nine sampling sites on the central and northern coast of Japan in November 2011 were analyzed. Total alkPAH concentrations were higher than those of PAHs at all sampling sites. Seven sampling sites had relatively low total concentrations of PAHs and alkPAHs (57.7–130 and 276–770 ng/g-dry, respectively); they included sites in Miyagi Prefecture (St. 5 and 9) that were seriously damaged by the Great East Japan Earthquake and by the following Tsunami on 11 March 2011. Two sampling sites (St. 2: Kominato, Aomori Prefecture; St. 3: Usushiri, Hokkaido) had higher concentrations of total PAHs and alkPAHs (PAHs, 1025 and 591 ng/g-dry, respectively; alkPAHs, 1490 and 1160 ng/g-dry, respectively). Diagnostic ratio calculation showed that St. 2 and 3 had PAHs of pyrolytic origin, possibly from vehicle exhaust gas or industrial fuel combustion, or both. The concentrations of these pollutants in the wharf roach were similar to those in bivalves and therefore likely reflected PAH pollution at the collection sites. The wharf roach may be a suitable candidate indicator of PAH pollution, not only in the intertidal zone inhabited by the currently used bivalve indicators, but also in the supratidal zone.
... Disasters, with devastating impacts in terms of physical damage, create enormous amounts of demolition waste through the destruction of buildings and infrastructure, and this is considered to be a grave consequence of disasters (United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1995(EPA), /1998(EPA), , 2008United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2007). Shibata et al. (2012) highlighted that the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami, which occurred in 2011, had an estimated generated waste in the Fukushima prefecture of 16 billion kilograms which is equivalent to 14 years of waste generation. The Haiti earthquake in 2010, hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 are some examples of single events that generated large volumes of waste overwhelming existing solid waste management capacities and requiring special approaches (Basnayake et al., 2005;Luther, 2008;Brown et al., 2011a). ...
... During the 1990s, capacity building focused on issues relating to management and administration (Grindle and Hilderbrand, 1995). It was termed as a capabilities approach providing opportunities to improve people's quality of life through access to a wide range of capabilities (Sen, 1981) and as capacitation, an effort to measure and promote relief and development programmes by donors (Wolfe, 1996). Morgan (1998) said it was a risky, murky, messy business, with unpredictable and unquantifiable outcomes, uncertain methodologies, contested objectives, many unintended consequences, little credit to its champions and long-time lags. ...
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical framework for capacity building in post disaster construction and demolition (C & D) waste management at a national level to address the identified capacity gaps in managing disaster waste resulting from natural hazards.
Design/methodology/approach
– Data were gathered through pilot interviews, case studies and expert opinion surveys representing government, non-government and other sector organisations involved in post disaster waste management.
Findings
– The study revealed unavailability of a single point of responsibility and provision for disaster waste in existing policies and capacity constraints in prevailing peace time solid waste management practices which were identified as major capacity gaps. Establishment of a regulatory body and enforceable rules and regulations with necessary levels of capacities was identified and presented in a theoretical framework comprising of seven identified areas for capacity building in post disaster waste management.
Research limitations/implications
– This study is limited to disaster C & D waste as debris generated from totally or partially damaged buildings and infrastructure as a direct impact of natural hazards or from demolished buildings and infrastructure at rehabilitation or early recovery stages. Waste generated during reconstruction phase of post disaster management cycle is not considered as disaster C & D waste for purposes of this study.
Originality/value
– The research enabled analysis of existing capacities and presents approaches for capacity building for identified gaps in post disaster C & D waste management to attain sustainable post disaster waste management for future resilience.
... Furthermore, many radionuclides were leaked into the environment because of an accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant that accompanied the disaster [5,6]. In addition to radionuclides, tsunami-damaged industrial facilities leaked many chemical substances into the environment [7,8]. Environmental contamination by toxic pollutants after this disaster is of concern [9]. ...
Background: In the Great East Japan Earthquake of 11 March 2011, an earthquake and accompanying tsunami struck the Tohoku region of northeastern Japan. Buildings collapsed and the tsunami spread waste, including hazardous materials. This study aimed to determine the concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the breast milk of mothers living in the disaster-affected area of Sendai 1 year after the earthquake. Temporal trends in the POPs concentrations were evaluated by comparison with previous studies.
Methods: One hundred breast milk samples were obtained from lactating mothers at a hospital in Sendai in 2012. The results were compared with those from other years to examine whether there were changes in the POPs concentrations after the earthquake. We measured polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides, such as chlordanes, using gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) with negative chemical ionization, and dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites using GC-MS with electron impact ionization.
Results: The mean total PCBs (11 congeners), total chlordane, and total DDT concentrations were 76.2 ng/g lipid, 39.8 ng/g lipid, and 73.5 ng/g lipid, respectively. For the samples collected in 2012, the concentrations of POPs in breast milk showed minimal changes compared with results from previous years for samples collected at the same hospital in Sendai.
Conclusions: Our study demonstrates that 1 year after the earthquake and tsunami, the concentrations of chlorinated POPs in breast milk had not changed substantially.
... In this study, earthquakes with radiation concerns were treated as complex disasters. Therefore, among the prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima that were affected by the GEJE, only Fukushima Prefecture was treated as having been affected by the complex disaster, because concerns regarding radiation exposure were high and widespread in Fukushima, whereas this was true only for a few areas in Miyagi and none in Iwate [22]. Large-scale earthquakes were defined as earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 6.5 and a seismic intensity scale of more than 7 that occurred after 1995, including the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (GHAE, 1995), Niigata Chuetsu earthquake (2004), Kumamoto earthquake (2016), and GEJE (2011) [23,24]. ...
The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (within Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures) was a complex disaster; it caused a tsunami and the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident, resulting in radiation exposure. This study investigated the earthquake's effects on the migration patterns of pregnant women and their concerns regarding radiation exposure. We also considered the following large-scale earthquakes without radiation exposure: Great Hanshin-Awaji (Hyogo prefecture), Niigata-Chuetsu, and Kumamoto. Pregnant women were categorized as outflow and inflow pregnant women. Data on the annual number of births three years before and after the earthquake were used as a denominator to calculate the outflow and inflow rates per 100 births. The odds ratios of annual outflow and inflow rates after the earthquake, using three years before the earthquake as the baseline, were calculated. The odds-ratio for outflow significantly increased for Hyogo, Fukushima, Miyagi, and Kumamoto prefectures after the earthquake, particularly for Fukushima, showing a significant increase until three years post the Great East Japan Earthquake (disaster year: odds-ratio: 2.66 [95% confidence interval: 2.44-2.90], 1 year post: 1.37 [1.23-1.52], 2 years post: 1.13 [1.00-1.26], 3 years post: 1.18 [1.05-1.31]), while the remaining three prefectures reported limited increases post one year. The inflow decreased after the earthquake, particularly in Fukushima, showing a significant decrease until 2 years post the Great East Japan Earthquake (disaster year: 0.58 [0.53-0.63], 1 year post: 0.76 [0.71-0.82], 2 years post: 0.83 [0.77-0.89]). Thus, pregnant women's migration patterns changed after large-scale earthquakes, suggesting radiation exposure concerns possibly have a significant effects. These results suggested that plans for receiving assistance and support that considers the peculiarities of disaster related damage and pregnant women's migration patterns are needed in both the affected and non-affected areas.
... Enormous amounts of debris and anthropogenically derived chemicals were released from damaged areas to surrounding coastal areas by the tsunami that followed the Great East Japan Earthquake [57][58][59]. Related areas were exposed to heavy metals and dioxins. For this reason, we expected that the damaged areas site 2 (HAC), 5 (ISH), 9 (GAM), 10 (SAS), 11 (ONA), and 12 (MAT) had high concentrations of these pollutants. ...
We investigated the pollution levels of 6 heavy metals and 29 dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs)) in intertidal and supratidal zones by using wharf roaches (Ligia spp.) collected from 12 sampling sites on the coast of Northeast Japan from November 2011 to June 2012. The total concentrations of heavy metals ranged from 177 to 377 µg/g-dry weight (dw), and the predominant metals were copper, zinc, and aluminum. The order of the detected level of heavy metals was zinc > aluminum > copper > cadmium > lead > chromium, and this trend was similar to a previous report. The total toxic equivalent (TEQ) value of the PCDD/Fs ranged from less than the limit of detection (<LOD) to 2.33 pg-TEQ/g-dw, and the predominant congener was octachlorodibenzodioxin (<LOD to 110 pg/g-dw). Compared with PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs were detected at a predominantly higher level (total TEQ value: 0.64–27.79 pg-TEQ/g-dw). Detected levels of dioxins, especially DL-PCBs in the wharf roach, were like those in the bivalves. These results indicate that the wharf roach could reflect heavy metals and dioxin pollution in the supratidal zones and is a suitable environmental indicator for these environmental pollutants. This is the first study to investigate heavy metals, PCDD/Fs, and DL-PCBs pollution in coastal isopods in Japan.
... Topic: Identification/separation of disaster debris Shibata et al. (2012) Topic: Estimation of disaster debris Tabata et al. (2018) Topic: DWM and its effect Phonphoton and Pharino (2019), Aoki (2018), Raila and Anderson (2017), Noh et al. (2015), Caniato et al. (2016), Beraud et al. (2012) and Baek et al. (2016) Topic: Treatment (option) of disaster waste Brown and Milke (2016) Topic: Organizations of DWM Kim (2016, 2019), Saat et al. (2016), Maryono et al. (2015) and Hooper (2019) Topic: Experience of DWM (case study) Sakai et al. (2019), Karunasena et al. (2012), Domingo and Luo (2017), Memon (2015), Lesperance et al. (2011), , Saffarzadeh et al. (2017), Gabrielli et al. (2018), Zhang et al. (2017) and Brown et al. (2011b) Topic: Integrated issues Xiao et al. (2012) and Asari et al. (2013) Model approach Topic: Estimation of disaster debris Poudel et al. (2018) Topic: DWM and its effect Cheng et al. (2018aCheng et al. ( , 2018b and Tabata et al. (2017) Topic: Treatment (option) of disaster waste Sasao (2016) Topic: Allocation of resources (e.g., facility) Rakes (2011, 2013) Topic: Location of facility, temporary storage site and processing site Topic: Treatment (option) of disaster waste Portugal-Pereira and Lee (2016), Regattieri et al. (2016Regattieri et al. ( , 2018 and Leader et al. (2018) Topic: Location of facility, temporary storage site and processing site Cheng and Thompson (2016) Topic: Integrated issues Otsuka and Katsumi (2015) and Askarizadeh et al. (2017) agement. In addition, it highlights those institutions that are working the most on this issue, and it enables future scholars to contact those institutions most likely interested in developing further research or technological advancements in the field of waste management. ...
Success waste management must use more than only the disposal of household waste due to both construction and demolition tasks increase and also the building of new homes and buildings entails large increases in the generation of construction waste, more in big cities. On the other hand, natural disasters also generate a large amount of waste and in an unplanned manner, which leads to having such waste out of the management budget. The literature shows the different efforts that are made to establish the best practices of urban waste management.
... Therefore, earthquake and tsunami disasters are an important research topic. The most serious recent earthquake was the Great East Japan Earthquake that occurred in 2011 and triggered a tsunami and nuclear leakage, causing huge casualties and economic losses (Shibata et al. 2012). However, judging from the disasters in Japan, the number of storm disasters is higher than that of earthquake disasters. ...
Research on natural hazards has become a focus due to the serious threat to human life and property. Based on the Science Citation Index Expanded and the Social Sciences Citation Index in the Web of Science spanning 2000–2017, we analyze the characteristics, cooperating countries and research trends of existing articles in the field of natural hazards using a bibliometric method. And the findings provide meaningful data and references for the allocation of science and technology inputs in the fields of natural hazards research. The results show the following: The USA has made the largest contribution to the natural hazards literature and has been in the leading position during the period of research; three of the ten most influential institutions are American institutions, and six out of ten of the most-cited articles are American articles; furthermore, the USA is the country that has the highest degree of cooperation with other countries; Chinese publications rank in second place, and China is the country with the highest average annual growth rate (22.63%), and the Chinese Academy of Sciences is one of the most productive research institutions (2098) but with a low international influence. We also analyze the changes in the research on natural hazards in two time periods as well as the similarities and differences between disaster occurrences and research hotspots. We found that “earthquakes,” “landslides,” and “climate change” are frequently used keywords in natural disaster science. The frequency of the keywords “climate change,” “vulnerability,” and “adaptability” has significantly increased. In addition, the frequency of the keywords used in various countries is significantly affected by the geographical location and there is a discrepancy between the research hotspots and the actual disaster occurrences. It is recommended that countries need to adjust their research directions in natural hazards research, strengthen international cooperation and exchange, and promote the establishment and improvement of a global disaster prevention and reduction system.
... During earthquake the underground geology, get fractured hence exposing oxidisable and reactive materials to oxidizing conditions. During rainfall and underground leakages, water will react with fractured components of the soil hence leading to the release of heavy metals to the environment (Edwards and Pojeto Jr. 1997; Kawabe et al. 2012;Leclère et al. 2018;Shibata et al. 2012;Simonen et al. 2018). ...
Heavy metals emanate from geogenic (natural) and anthropogenic (man-made) sources. These chemical species can pose severe ecological pollution and environmental degradation due to their high toxicity and non-bio-degradable nature. In this book chapter, the sources of heavy metals in the environment, pathways, ecological fate and footprints, eco-toxicological effects, regulatory frameworks, treatment technologies, valorization options, and recovery in light of the future perspectives are discussed. Thenceforth, this book chapter has shown that heavy metals could pose mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic effects to living organisms on exposure. The link between heavy metals and various eco-toxicological studies and epidemiological reports are also discussed. Finally, the future research outlooks and potential avenues towards the minimization of ecological footprints of heavy metals pollution are duly underscored.
... The management of waste generated by the succession of catastrophes that affected the Fukushima Prefecture in March 2011 has proved to be very complex, as debris derived from the earthquake, the tsunami and the radioactive materials were mixed, resulting in a very atypical mixture of "disaster waste" (Shibata et al., 2012). Earthquake and tsunamiassociated waste had elevated levels of metals and metalloids (e.g. ...
The Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident in March 2011
resulted in the contamination of Japanese landscapes with radioactive
fallout. Accordingly, the Japanese authorities decided to conduct extensive
remediation activities in the impacted region to allow for the relatively
rapid return of the local population. The objective of this review is to
provide an overview of the decontamination strategies and their potential
effectiveness in Japan, focussing on particle-bound radiocesium. In the
Fukushima Prefecture, the decision was taken to decontaminate the
fallout-impacted landscapes in November 2011 for the 11 municipalities
evacuated after the accident (Special Decontamination Zone – SDZ – 1117 km2) and for the 40 non-evacuated municipalities affected by
lower, although still significant, levels of radioactivity (Intensive
Contamination Survey Areas, 7836 km2). Decontamination
activities predominantly targeted agricultural landscapes and residential
areas. No decontamination activities are currently planned for the majority
of forested areas, which cover ∼75 % of the main
fallout-impacted region. Research investigating the effectiveness of
decontamination activities underlined the need to undertake concerted
actions at the catchment scale to avoid renewed contamination
from the catchment headwaters after the completion of remediation
activities. Although the impact of decontamination on the radioactive dose
rates for the local population remains a subject of debate in the literature
and in the local communities, outdoor workers in the SDZ represent a group
of the local population that may exceed the long-term dosimetric target of
1 mSv yr−1. Decontamination activities generated ∼20 million m3 of soil waste by early 2019. The volume of waste generated
by decontamination may be decreased through incineration of combustible
material and recycling of the less contaminated soil for civil engineering
structures. However, most of this material will have to be stored for
∼30 years at interim facilities opened in 2017 in the
vicinity of the FDNPP before being potentially transported to final disposal
sites outside of the Fukushima Prefecture. Further research is required to
investigate the perennial contribution of radiocesium from forest sources.
In addition, the re-cultivation of farmland after decontamination raises
additional questions associated with the fertility of remediated soils and
the potential transfer of residual radiocesium to the plants. Overall, we
believe it is important to synthesise the remediation lessons learnt
following the FDNPP nuclear accident, which could be fundamental if a
similar catastrophe occurs somewhere on Earth in the future.
... The management of waste generated by the succession of catastrophes that affected the Fukushima Prefecture in March 2011 has proved to be very complex, as debris derived from the earthquake, the tsunami and the radioactive materials were mixed, resulting in a very atypical mixture of "disaster waste" (Shibata et al., 2012). Earthquake and tsunamiassociated waste had elevated levels of metals and metalloids (e.g. ...
The Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident in March 2011 resulted in the contamination of Japanese landscapes with radioactive fallout. Accordingly, the Japanese authorities decided to conduct extensive remediation activities in the impacted region to allow for the relatively rapid return of the local population. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the decontamination strategies and their potential effectiveness in Japan, focussing on particle-bound radiocesium. In the Fukushima Prefecture, the decision was taken to decontaminate the fallout-impacted landscapes in November 2011 for the 11 municipalities evacuated after the accident (Special Decontamination Zones – SDZ, 1117 km²) and for the 40 non-evacuated municipalities affected by lower, although still significant, levels of radioactivity (Intensive Contamination Survey Areas, 7836 km²). Decontamination activities predominantly targeted agricultural landscapes and residential areas. No decontamination activities are currently planned for the majority of forested areas, which cover ~ 75 % of the main fallout-impacted region. Research investigating the effectiveness of decontamination activities underlined the need to undertake concerted actions at the catchment scale to avoid the renewed supply of contamination from the catchment headwaters after the completion of remediation activities. Although the impact of decontamination on the radioactive dose rates for the local population remains a subject of debate in the literature and in the local communities, outdoor workers in the SDZ represent a group of the local population that may exceed the long-term dosimetric target of 1 mSv yr−1. Decontamination activities generated ~ 20 million m³ of soil waste by early 2019. The volume of waste generated by decontamination may be decreased through incineration of combustible material and recycling of the less contaminated soil for civil engineering structures. However, most of this material will have to be stored for ~ 30 years at interim facilities opened in 2017 in the close vicinity of the FDNPP before being potentially transported to final disposal sites outside of the Fukushima Prefecture. Further research is required to investigate the perennial contribution of radiocesium from forest sources. In addition, the re-cultivation of farmland after decontamination raises additional questions associated with the fertility of remediated soils and the potential transfer of residual radiocesium to the plants. Overall, we believe it is important to synthesize the remediation lessons learnt following the FDNPP nuclear accident, which could be fundamental if a similar catastrophe occurs somewhere on Earth in the future.
... Disasters create enormous amounts of Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste through destruction of buildings and infrastructure (EPA, 2008;FEMA, 2007). For example the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011, Haiti earthquake of 2010, hurricane Katrina of 2005 and Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 are events that generated large volumes of waste and overwhelmed the existing solid waste management capacities of the local authorities concerned (Basnayake et al., 2005;Luther, 2008;Brown et al., 2010;Shibata et al., 2012). Brown et al. (2011) assert that disaster debris impacts not only on the environment but also rescue and emergency services, provision of lifeline support and socio-economic recovery of the affected areas. ...
Waste management is considered to be the weakest phase in responding to a disaster. This became apparent when Sri Lanka suffered enormously from the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. The City of Galle located on the south coast was severely affected by this event, causing some 4000 deaths and destroying over 15000 houses. The Construction Waste Management (COWAM) project funded by the European Union from 2005-2009 looked at the most sustainable ways of dealing with Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste after a disaster and devised a pilot C&D recycling plant (COWAM Centre) in Galle. This paper reflects on the C&D waste management practices followed by the city authorities during the recovery and reconstruction phase right up to the operation of the COWAM Centre with the intention of seeking best practices for the future. As part of the COWAM case study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with municipal authorities and voluntary organizations to identify the C&D waste management process followed during recovery and reconstruction. Empirical data was collected from actual demolition sites located in Galle to establish the quantity of C&D waste, composition, hazardous substances found, and collection efficiency. Findings revealed that waste was disposed initially into temporary dumping sites and later recycled through the COWAM Centre. However, this study found many issues that could have been avoided if Galle Municipal Council had planned and implemented a quick C&D waste management strategy. Key issues which arose were lack of heavy vehicles, lack of manpower, inability to forecast the amount and composition of waste, and inability to identify suitable temporary dumping sites. The characteristics of C&D waste gave a baseline for the design of COWAM Centre. The paper presents a viable approach to overcome issues pertaining to C&D waste management during the aftermath of a disaster through the lessons learned from the COWAM project.
... Natural disasters, such as the Great East Japan Earthquake, might increase exposure of CCA to human. The earthquake and the following tsunami on March 11, 2011, generated a huge amount of lumber debris, including CCA-treated woods, which had the potential to spread elements in CCA, such as As, Cr, and Cu, into the environment (Ohgami et al. 2015;Shibata, Solo-Gabriele, and Hata 2012). In the fieldwork study after the Great East Japan Earthquake, measurement of elements in 233 pieces of lumber debris collected revealed that 5 pieces (2.1%) were CCA-treated wood containing 10,000 + 8869 mg/kg of Cr, 2064 + 1319 mg/kg of Cu, and 3380 + 2328 mg/kg of As (Ohgami et al. 2015). ...
Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is used as a wood preservative worldwide. Exposure to it may adversely affect human health. Some events have increased human exposure to CCA, including the Great East Japan Earthquake, which generated a large amount of lumber debris from CCA-treated woods. We elucidated the toxicity due to daily exposure to CCA over a 4-week period at doses of 0, 8, 40, and 80 mg/kg/day in Wistar Hannover rats. Chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As), but not copper, were detected in the plasma samples of rats treated with various doses of CCA. Males and females showed sedation, and males had poor body weight gain. The clinical pathologies observed in both sexes included hypochromic and microcytic anemia, hepatic and renal dysfunction, and changes in lipid and glucose levels. Histopathologically, males and females showed forestomach hyperkeratosis, mucosal epithelial hyperplasia in the small intestine, rectal goblet cell hypertrophy, and lipofuscin deposition in the proximal renal tubule. Females showed diffuse hepatocellular hypertrophy with increased 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels. These results indicated that oral administration of CCA mainly affected hematopoietic, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and renal systems owing to the toxic effects of As and/or Cr. Major toxic effects were observed in both sexes receiving 40 and 80 mg/kg/day.
... Large amounts of radionuclides, including Pu, have been released into surface water, groundwater, and seawater (Lukashev, 1993;Cook et al., 1997;Myasoedova and Drozhko, 1998;Dai et al., 2002;Bailly de Bois et al., 2012;Kanda, 2013;Oikawa et al., 2013;Keum et al., 2015). The FDNPP accident also severely contaminated sewage water (Shibata et al., 2012;Kamei-Ishikawa et al., 2013;Kozai et al., 2015). ...
This study investigated the interaction of inorganic aqueous Eu(III), Pb(II), and U(VI) with Paramecium sp., a representative single-celled protozoan that lives in freshwater. Living and prekilled Paramecium cells were tested. The prekilled cells were killed with a fixative. After 24 h exposure of the cells to inorganic aqueous solutions containing Eu(III) or U(VI), analyses by microparticle-induced X-ray emission with a focused beam (<1 μm) did not detect Eu and U in the living cells, whereas Eu and U were detected in the prekilled cells. Size exclusion chromatography coupled with on-line ultraviolet-visible detection and elemental detection by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry of the aqueous phases collected after the living cell experiments revealed that a fraction of the Eu, Pb, and U in the aqueous phase bound to a large (ca. 250 kDa) Paramecium biomolecule and formed a metal-organic complex. The characteristics of the biomolecule were consistent with those of the soluble glycoproteins covering the surfaces of Paramecium cells. These results show that Paramecium cells transform inorganic aqueous Eu, Pb, and U to organic complexes. This paper discusses the relation between this novel complexation and the sorption of these heavy elements on Paramecium cells.
... Disasters create enormous amounts of Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste through destruction of buildings and infrastructure (EPA, 2008;FEMA, 2007). For example the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011, Haiti earthquake of 2010, hurricane Katrina of 2005 and Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 are events that generated large volumes of waste and overwhelmed the existing solid waste management capacities of the local authorities concerned (Basnayake et al., 2005;Luther, 2008;Brown et al., 2010;Shibata et al., 2012). Brown et al. (2011) assert that disaster debris impacts not only on the environment but also rescue and emergency services, provision of lifeline support and socio-economic recovery of the affected areas. ...
Waste management is considered to be the weakest phase in responding to a disaster. This became apparent when Sri Lanka suffered enormously from the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. The City of Galle located on the south coast was severely affected by this event, causing some 4000 deaths and destroying over 15000 houses. The Construction Waste Management (COWAM) project funded by the European Union from 2005-2009 looked at the most sustainable ways of dealing with Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste after a disaster and devised a pilot C&D recycling plant (COWAM Centre) in Galle. This paper reflects on the C&D waste management practices followed by the city authorities during the recovery and reconstruction phase right up to the operation of the COWAM Centre with the intention of seeking best practices for the future. As part of the COWAM case study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with municipal authorities and voluntary organizations to identify the C&D waste management process followed during recovery and reconstruction. Empirical data was collected from actual demolition sites located in Galle to establish the quantity of C&D waste, composition, hazardous substances found, and collection efficiency. Findings revealed that waste was disposed initially into temporary dumping sites and later re-cycled through the COWAM Centre. However, this study found many issues that could have been avoided if Galle Municipal Council had planned and implemented a quick C&D waste management strategy. Key issues which arose were lack of heavy vehicles, lack of manpower, inability to forecast the amount and composition of waste, and inability to identify suitable temporary dumping sites. The characteristics of C&D waste gave a baseline for the design of COWAM Centre. The paper presents a viable approach to overcome issues pertaining to C&D waste management during the aftermath of a disaster through the lessons learned from the COWAM project.
... Disasters create enormous amounts of Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste through destruction of buildings and infrastructure (EPA, 2008;FEMA, 2007). For example the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011, Haiti earthquake of 2010, hurricane Katrina of 2005 and Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 are events that generated large volumes of waste and overwhelmed the existing solid waste management capacities of the local authorities concerned (Basnayake et al., 2005;Luther, 2008;Brown et al., 2010;Shibata et al., 2012). Brown et al. (2011) assert that disaster debris impacts not only on the environment but also rescue and emergency services, provision of lifeline support and socio-economic recovery of the affected areas. ...
Waste management is considered to be the weakest phase in responding to a disaster. This became apparent when Sri Lanka suffered enormously from the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. The City of Galle located on the south coast was severely affected by this event, causing some 4000 deaths and destroying over 15000 houses. The Construction Waste Management (COWAM) project funded by the European Union from 2005-2009 looked at the most sustainable ways of dealing with Construction & Demolition (C&D) waste after a disaster and devised a pilot C&D recycling plant (COWAM Centre) in Galle. This paper reflects on the C&D waste management practices followed by the city authorities during the recovery and reconstruction phase right up to the operation of the COWAM Centre with the intention of seeking best practices for the future. As part of the COWAM case study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with municipal authorities and voluntary organizations to identify the C&D waste management process followed during recovery and reconstruction. Empirical data was collected from actual demolition sites located in Galle to establish the quantity of C&D waste, composition, hazardous substances found, and collection efficiency. Findings revealed that waste was disposed initially into temporary dumping sites and later recycled through the COWAM Centre. However, this study found many issues that could have been avoided if Galle Municipal Council had planned and implemented a quick C&D waste management strategy. Key issues which arose were lack of heavy vehicles, lack of manpower, inability to forecast the amount and composition of waste, and inability to identify suitable temporary dumping sites. The characteristics of C&D waste gave a baseline for the design of COWAM Centre. The paper presents a viable approach to overcome issues pertaining to C&D waste management during the aftermath of a disaster through the lessons learned from the COWAM project.
... In some cases the equivalent of many years' worth of waste are generated in a single event often overwhelming existing solid waste management facilities and personnel (Brown et al., 2011). Example, the Great East Japan Earthquake, occurred near the northeast coast of the Tohoku region in Japan on March 2011 can be shown (Shibata et al., 2012). Accordingly, management of waste created by disasters has become an increasingly important issue to be addressed in responding to a disaster (Thummarukudy, 2012) In Sri Lanka, Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 is the disaster that reported as the biggest tragedy that experienced in recent past with large volume of debris which has not properly disposed, reused or managed with in the country (UNEP, 2005). ...
Natural disasters such as Fukushima earthquake and tsunami in 2011, Haiti earthquake in 2010, Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 were evident for large volumes of waste generated overwhelming existing solid waste capacities, requiring special approaches. This was further aggravated by prevailing improper Municipal Solid Waste Management practices with inadequate management capacities, specifically in developing countries. These resulted in social, economical and health issues such as unpleasant odor, ground water contamination and epidemics. This is also applicable to Sri Lanka which was severely affected by Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 and prevailing dengue epidemic due to improper Municipal Solid Waste Management practices. In this context, this paper reveals approaches for capacity building over identified capacity gaps in disaster waste management in Sri Lanka. Case study research approach was used and multiple cases were selected representing all stakeholders involved in disaster waste management. Data were gathered through fifteen semi structured interviews. Unavailability of a regulatory body, pre-planned frameworks and enforceable rules and regulations and capacity constraints are identified as major gaps in disaster waste management in Sri Lanka. Establishment of a regulatory body and enforceable rules and regulations with necessary levels of capacities can attain sustainable disaster waste management for future resilience in Sri Lanka.
... Management of disaster waste is identified as an area of least concern yet it presents momentous challenges for disaster management those with inadequate capacities due to the large volume and hazardous constituents created, in particular in developing countries. Shibata et al., (2012) highlighted that Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami occurred in 2011, estimated generated waste in Fukushima prefecture is 16 million tons which was equivalent to 14 years of waste generation. Brown et al., (2011a) state that disaster debris impacts not only public and environment but also on rescue and emergency services, provision of lifeline support and socio-economic recovery of affected areas. ...
Disaster waste is one of the major consequences aftermath of any disaster, impacts on public and environment, rescue and emergency services, provision of lifeline support and socio-economic recovery of affected areas. Thus, management of wastes created by disasters has become an increasingly important issue to be addressed in responding to a disaster. This chapter intends to present the prevailing gaps in disaster waste management and approaches to minimize the impacts on disaster management at developing countries with special emphasis to Sri Lankan context. Findings revealed that, unavailability of single point responsibility and provisions for disaster waste in existing policies and capacity constraints of the prevailing peace time solid waste management practices as major capacity gaps. Establishment of a regulatory body and enforceable rules and regulations with necessary levels of capacities were identified with seven areas for capacity building for post disaster waste management. The research enabled to attain sustainable post disaster waste management for future resilience.
... . The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and Environment Protection Agency (EPA) identified physical damages that create enormous amounts of demolition waste through destruction of buildings and infrastructure as a grave consequence of disasters (United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2008; United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2007). Brown et al. (2011a) and Shibata et al. (2012) revealed that construction and demolition (C&D) waste was the major component in most cases of disaster waste, such as in the Fukushima earthquake and tsunami in 2011, the Haiti earthquake in 2010, Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. Pike (2007) concluded that approximately 55 per cent of the FEMA's federal disaster spending was directed towards immediate relief including waste removal such as in the case of post Hurricane Katrina in year 2005. ...
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical framework for capacity building in post disaster construction and demolition (C&D) waste management at a national level to address the identified capacity gaps in managing disaster waste resulting from natural hazards. Design/methodology/approach – Data were gathered through pilot interviews, case studies and expert opinion surveys representing government, non-government and other sector organisations involved in post disaster waste management. Findings – The study revealed unavailability of a single point of responsibility and provision for disaster waste in existing policies and capacity constraints in prevailing peace time solid waste management practices which were identified as major capacity gaps. Establishment of a regulatory body and enforceable rules and regulations with necessary levels of capacities was identified and presented in a theoretical framework comprising of seven identified areas for capacity building in post disaster waste management. Research limitations/implications – This study is limited to disaster C&D waste as debris generated from totally or partially damaged buildings and infrastructure as a direct impact of natural hazards or from demolished buildings and infrastructure at rehabilitation or early recovery stages. Waste generated during reconstruction phase of post disaster management cycle is not considered as disaster C&D waste for purposes of this study. Originality/value – The research enabled analysis of existing capacities and presents approaches for capacity building for identified gaps in post disaster C&D waste management to attain sustainable post disaster waste management for future resilience. © 2016
... Solid wastes were analyzed for chemical and biological contaminants in June, 2011. An Alpha-2000s X-ray fluorescence analyzer (Olympus Innov-X Systems Inc., Woburn, MA) was used to measure the levels of multiple metal and metalloids in the solid waste (Shibata et al., 2012). Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) on solid wastes were collected using a swabbing technique. ...
People living in slums can be considered left behind with regard to national successes in achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The objective of this study was to evaluate the living and working conditions of waste pickers and their children in a landfill slum located in the largest city in eastern Indonesia. A total of 113 people from the landfill slum and 1184 people from the general population participated in face-to-face interviews. Municipal solid waste (MSW) was analyzed for metals, metalloids and fecal indicator bacteria. Ambient air quality including particulate matter was measured in the landfill. Households in the landfill slum were 5.73 (p = 0.04) times more likely to be below the international poverty line (MDG 1: Poverty) and 15.6 times (p < 0.01) more likely to have no one in the household possessing a primary education (MDG 2: Universal Education), and 107 times (p < 0.01) more likely not to have improved sanitation facilities (MDG 7: Environmental Sustainability) when compared to the general population. Diarrhea is one of the leading causes of death in children under five in Indonesia. Young children living in the landfill slum were 2.87 times (p = 0.02) more likely to develop diarrhea than their general population counterparts. Other survey results and environmental measurements suggest that landfill slum children have additional adverse health effects (e.g. infections and poisoning). Poverty underlies several MDG issues that directly or indirectly affect child health. Therefore, eradicating extreme poverty will continue to be the most critical challenge for the MDGs beyond 2015.
... For example, mixed plastic-waste from electrical and electronic equipments contains significant amount of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Sb, Sn, etc.) and also flame retardants (Gullett et al., 2007;W€ ager et al., 2011). In Japan, earthquake and tsunami generated waste have also been characterized, and the results show elevated levels of metals/ metalloids (e.g., As, Cr, Hg, Pb, Sb, etc.) (Shibata et al., 2012). Nakashima et al. (2012) performed the leaching experiments on the macroplastic waste samples collected ashore on Ookushi Beach, Japan. ...
... The radioactive Cs fallout was dispersed from the FDNPP into the ocean and across large areas of Japan, including the Tohoku and north Kanto regions (Fig. S1 in the Supplementary content) (Chino et al., 2011;Kawamura et al., 2011). The soil, animals, plants, architectural structures, and natural water in these regions were contaminated with radioactive Cs (Koarashi et al., 2012;Kozai et al., 2012;Shibata et al., 2012;Nakanishi et al., 2013;Tanaka et al., 2013;Saegusa et al., 2014;Sakai et al., 2014). Subsequently, rainwater has dissolved some of the radioactive Cs from contaminated objects or washed the contaminated objects containing radioactive Cs away. ...
The radioactive fallout cesium ((137)Cs) in the sewage sludge ashes (SSAs) produced in Japan after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Accident was tested. Five samples of SSAs produced in 2011 and 2012 were tested. Two of the samples contained (137)Cs (23 and 9.6 kBq/kg, respectively) above the radioactivity criterion (8 kBq of radioactive Cs/kg of solid) for controlled landfill disposal in Japan. The mineral components of SSA are roughly divided into two groups: an HCl-soluble phase mainly composed of phosphates and oxides; and silicates, including quartz, feldspar, and clay. Both phases contained (137)Cs. The majority (up to 90%) of (137)Cs was contained in the HCl-soluble phase. Among the HCl-soluble subphases, Fe-bearing phases that were probably iron oxides were mainly responsible for (137)Cs retention. No positive evidence was obtained that showed that phosphate-bearing phases, which were included most in SSAs along with the silicate phase, retained (137)Cs. Pre-pulverizing SSAs and heating them at 95 °C in a 6 M or a concentrated aqueous HCl was the most effective method of dissolving the HCl-soluble phase. The radioactivity concentrations of (137)Cs in all the HCl-treatment residues were below the radioactivity criterion. This residue was mostly composed of silicates. After static leaching tests of the residue at 60 °C for 28 days, no (137)Cs was detected in simulated environmental water leachates (pure water and synthetic seawater), demonstrating that (137)Cs in the residue is very stably immobilized in the silicates.
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... For example, Ham et al. investigated the public health risk due to antibiotic concentrations in Tama River (Ham et al., 2012); Zushi et al. (2008) noted that water of the Tokyo Bay basin contained high levels of perfluorononanoate (PFNA), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS). Other researchers identified heavy metal pollution in metropolitan bay areas (Yasuhara and Yamazaki, 2005;Tsujimoto et al., 2006;Hosono et al., 2010), especially after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Shibata et al., 2012). The number of accidental spills in watersheds has increased dramatically in recent years (Wakakura and Iiduka, 1999;Tsumori et al., 2004), resulting in obstruction in water supply, often leading to negative consequences for the environment (Schwarz et al., 2006). ...
We present a spatiotemporal evaluation of water quality incidents in Japan considering incident numbers, incident causes, pollutant categories, and pollution effects. Water pollution incidents in first-class river systems almost tripled to about 1487 in the 12years from 1996 to 2007. In addition, oil makes up the largest proportion of pollutants nationwide (76.61%) and the major source of pollution for each region in Japan. Moreover, every category shows a growth trend, especially since 2005. The main cause of incidents was "Unknown" (43%), followed by "Poor working practice" (24%), and then by "Accident" (10%) and "Other" (10%). In Hokuriku, however, the main cause of incidents was "Poor working practice" (36%), which is greater than "Unknown" (30%). Finally, waterworks (approximately 60%) was the largest of four kinds of water supply infrastructure affected by pollution incidents, followed by simplified waterworks. The population affected by offensive odors and tastes peaked in 1990 and has been decreasing. Overall, the results show the characteristics of incidents from 1996 to 2007, with significant implications for adaptation measures, strategies and policies to reduce water quality incidents.
... For example, Ham et al. investigated the public health risk due to antibiotic concentrations in Tama River (Ham et al., 2012); Zushi et al. (2008) noted that water of the Tokyo Bay basin contained high levels of perfluorononanoate (PFNA), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS). Other researchers identified heavy metal pollution in metropolitan bay areas (Yasuhara and Yamazaki, 2005;Tsujimoto et al., 2006;Hosono et al., 2010), especially after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Shibata et al., 2012). The number of accidental spills in watersheds has increased dramatically in recent years (Wakakura and Iiduka, 1999;Tsumori et al., 2004), resulting in obstruction in water supply, often leading to negative consequences for the environment (Schwarz et al., 2006). ...
Nutrients and suspended sediment in surface water play important roles in aquatic ecosystems and contribute strongly to water quality with implication for drinking water resources, human and environmental health. Estimating loads of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and suspended sediment (SS) is complicated because of infrequent monitoring data, retransformation bias, data censoring, and non-normality. To obtain reliable unbiased estimates, the Maintenance of Variance-Extension type 3 (MOVE. 3) and the regression model Load Estimator (LOADEST) were applied to develop regression equations and to estimate total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and SS loads at five sites on the Ishikari River, Japan, from 1985 to 2010. Coefficients of determination (R(2)) for the best-fit regression models for loads of TN, TP, and SS for the five sites ranged from 71.86 % to 90.94 %, suggesting the model for all three constituents successfully simulated the variability in constituent loads at all studied sites. Estimated monthly average loads at Yishikarikakou-bashi were larger than at the other sites, with TN, TP, and SS loads ranging from 8.52×10(3) to 2.00×10(5)kg/day (Apr. 1999), 3.96×10(2) to 5.23×10(4)kg/ day (Apr. 1999), and 9.21×10(4) to 9.25×10(7)kg/day (Sep. 2001), respectively. Because of variation in river discharge, the estimated seasonal loads fluctuated widely over the period 1985 to 2010, with the greatest loads occurring in spring and the smallest loads occurring in winter. Estimated loads of TN, TP, and especially SS showed decreasing trends during the study period. Accurate load estimation is a necessary goal of water quality monitoring efforts and the methods described here provide essential information for effectively managing water resources.
The complexity of disaster effects has elevated post-disaster management to the forefront of policy debates.
Earthquakes can have far-reaching consequences on a region's economic, population health, and natural environment, all of which necessitate careful management of the massive amounts of construction and demolition waste (CDW) that result. Besides these effects, disaster waste has the potential to overwhelm already overburdened solid waste disposal facilities and interfere with emergency response and recovery efforts. Disaster waste management (DWM) is essential to overcome these problems.
Substantial economic and environmental benefits, support in reconstruction, and a model for the resource usage of CDW worldwide can be expected from post-disaster waste management, safe demolition, and environmentally acceptable disposal and recycling methods for CDW.
The purpose of this study is to present the findings of important case studies examining post-earthquake waste management solutions and issues. Focusing on the resources, the present work analyzes the amounts of waste created by earthquakes.
Disasters can generate substantial quantities of disaster waste that must be managed for effective response and recovery. Modelling the potential quantities and types of waste expected after disasters has been widely applied for a variety of hazards (e.g., earthquake, hurricane, flood, tsunami). However, there has been limited consideration of modelling disaster waste as a result of volcanic eruptions, which can generate considerable disaster waste volumes and management issues. In this work we develop a modelling framework for assessing disaster waste types and quantities after volcanic eruptions affecting urban environments. The framework facilitates quantification of different waste types resulting from damaged buildings and classification of different clean-up zones. The framework is based on vulnerability models and heuristic analysis of the likely waste generated at different damage states from volcanic hazards and is designed to be applied as part of a standard risk modelling procedure. Clean-up zone classifications are developed by identifying key management requirements for different urban land use types. We apply the framework to a case study, using eight eruption scenarios for the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand. Modelling outputs indicate that building debris waste generated under each of these scenarios is likely to be on the order of hundreds of thousands to tens of millions of tonnes. Waste is also likely to be highly mixed in some areas where buildings are heavily damaged and contaminated with volcanic products such as tephra and/or lava, which will complicate disaster waste management activities.
Alkali-activated metakaolin geopolymers are attracting interest in the conditioning of nuclear wastes, especially for their ability to immobilise cationic species. However, there is limited understanding of the chemical interactions between the encapsulated spent ion-exchangers, used for decontaminating waste water, and the host aluminosilicate matrix. The lack of such understanding makes it difficult to predict the long-term stability of the waste form. In this study, the suitability of using metakaolin based geopolymer as a matrix for encapsulation of titanate-type ion-exchangers loaded with non-radioactive Sr was investigated for the first time, via spectroscopic and microstructural inspection of the encapsulated ion-exchangers and the aluminosilicate gel matrix. The microstructural and chemical properties of metakaolin geopolymers remained stable after encapsulating titanate type spent ion-exchangers, performed desirably as host materials for conditioning of Sr-loaded titanate ion-exchangers.
Disaster waste management received increasing attention in recent year, but there was no review updating the evolving development after the study of Brown et al. (2011a). To explore how the topics in disaster waste management evolved in recent years and to analyze whether the gaps identified by Brown et al. (2011a) are covered, 82 papers published from 2011 to 2019 were selected from the Scopus database based on the defined process and criteria, to systematically examine the disaster waste management research from nine aspects of planning, waste, waste treatment options, environment, economics, social considerations, organizational aspects, legal frameworks and funding. The results suggested that there were no obvious changes or developments in the field of disaster waste management, although a few research gaps have been addressed, such as waste separation, waste quantities, case studies of incineration and waste to energy, direct economic effects, social considerations as well as application of GIS technology. Except for the comparative studies, future directions were suggested by the gaps that persist since Brown et al. (2011a) and the new gaps that were identified in this review.
This study aimed to clarify the roles of CaCl2, CaO, and their mixture in the vaporization of Cs from Cs-doped ash during thermal treatment. In particular, potential mechanisms of the synergistic effect of the addition of a mixture of CaCl2 and CaO on Cs vaporization were investigated. Vaporization experiments were carried out in a lab-scale horizontal furnace at 900, 1000, and 1100 °C. The results indicated that adding a mixture of CaCl2 and CaO produced a synergistic effect on Cs vaporization when the reaction temperature was above 1000 °C and the vaporization ratio was noticeably increased in comparison to that when adding CaCl2 or CaO alone. The formation of wadalite (Ca6Al5Si2O16Cl3) and/or igumnovite [Ca3Al2(SiO4)2Cl4], derived from chemical reactions among CaCl2, CaO, and aluminosilicates in the Cs-doped ash, delayed the release of Cl during thermal treatment, thus extending the contact time of Cs and gaseous Cl. Furthermore, CaO destabilized the aluminosilicate structure, resulting in a higher volatility and reactivity of Cs, and thus, a reaction readily occurred between activated Cs and gaseous Cl released from the decomposition of wadalite and/or igumnovite.
The vaporization behaviors of the alkali metals Cs, K, and Na were investigated at 900, 1000, and 1100 °C in a lab-scale electrical-heating horizontal furnace using a Cs-doped ash with the addition of CaCl2 and/or CaO. Knudsen effusion mass spectrometry was employed to measure the vaporization of the alkali metals in the Cs-doped ash with CaO under a high vacuum. Molecular beam mass spectrometry was used online to measure their vaporization from the Cs-doped ash with either CaCl2 or a mixture of CaCl2 and CaO. The addition of CaO caused some vaporization of these elements, which was probably due to the replacement of the Cs⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺ cations in aluminosilicates with Ca²⁺ cations during the thermal treatment. The vaporization propensity of the three elements followed the sequence of Cs > K > Na. The vaporization of Cs, K, and Na were observed during a thermal treatment with CaCl2. An increase in the content of CaCl2 or the reaction temperature facilitated the vaporization of Cs, K, and Na. O2 and H2O in the reactant gas showed an inhibiting effect on the vaporization of Cs, K, and Na through accelerating the release of Cl from the decomposition of CaCl2. A synergistic effect was observed between the addition of CaCl2 and CaO on the vaporization of Cs, K, and Na because they delayed the release of Cl, which provided a longer contact time between the three metals and the gaseous Cl. Moreover, when the mixture of CaCl2 and CaO was used, the CaO produced unstable Cs, K, and Na that readily reacted with gaseous Cl, enhancing the vaporization of the alkali metals during thermal treatment. At 1100 °C, 93% of the Cs was vaporized from the Cs-doped ash with 5% CaCl2 and 20% CaO while the vaporization ratio of K and Na was 69% and 63%, respectively.
The geomorphology of the Italian territory causes the incidence of many disasters like earthquakes and
floods, with the consequent production of large volumes of waste. The management of such huge flows,
produced in a very short time, may have a high impact on the whole emergency response. Moreover, historical
data related to disaster waste management are often not easily accessible; on the other hand, the
availability of data concerning previous events could support the emergency managers, that have to take
a decision in a very short time. In this context, the present paper analyses four relevant recent case studies
in Italy, dealing with disaster waste management after geologic and hydrologic natural events.
Significant differences have been observed in the quantity and types of generated wastes, and, also, in
the management approach. Such differences are mainly associated with the kind of disaster (i.e. earthquake
vs. flood), to the geographical location (i.e. internal vs. coastal area), to the urbanisation level
(i.e. industrial vs. urban). The study allowed the identification of both strengths and weaknesses of the
applied waste management strategies, that represent ‘‘lessons to learn” for future scenarios. Even though
it deals with Italian case studies, this manuscript may have a high impact also at international level, making
available for the first-time emergency waste management data, that are considered an indispensable
support for decision makers.
Strategic interaction among governments has become a major focus of empirical and theoretical work in public economics. NIMBY is one application of the literature. In the present paper, we apply the NIMBY model to the disposal of disaster debris after the Great East Japan Earthquake when there was substantial concern over radioactive contamination following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant incident. We empirically test the strategic interaction among municipality governments. We find strong evidence of such interaction. That is, in deciding whether to accept disaster waste, the municipality governments appear to keep a close eye on other municipality governments’ choices.
The authors have developed and applied new technologies using zeolite composite fibers to prevent radioactive Cs pollution of water in Fukushima, Japan. During approximately four years in the area, decontamination has been conducted to reduce radioactive cesium (Cs) in the field. However, water contaminated with extra-diluted radioactive Cs has prevented residence within about 30 km of the damaged nuclear facilities. Great efforts at decontamination work should be undertaken to alleviate social anxiety and to produce a safe society in Fukushima. Decontamination using fiber-like decontamination adsorbents was examined in actual use for radioactive Cs in water in Date city in 2013 and in Okuma town in 2015. This report describes preparation and properties of the fiber-like decontamination adsorbents. Furthermore, this report is the first describing results of radioactive Cs decontamination using a fiber-like adsorbent for water with extra-low-level concentrations of radionuclides. Even four years after the accident, results strongly suggest the decontamination still distributed in Fukushima area, depending on the distance of the nuclear power plant. Evidence indicates the importance of preventing extension of radioactive Cs further downstream to human residential areas.
One of the main challenges faced by the nuclear industry is the long-term confinement of nuclear waste. Because it is inexpensive and easy to manufacture, cement is the material of choice to store large volumes of radioactive materials, in particular the low-level medium-lived fission products. It is therefore of utmost importance to assess the chemical and structural stability of cement containing radioactive species. Here, we use ab initio calculations based on density functional theory (DFT) to study the effects of (90)Sr insertion and decay in C-S-H (calcium-silicate-hydrate) in order to test the ability of cement to trap and hold this radioactive fission product and to investigate the consequences of its β-decay on the cement paste structure. We show that (90)Sr is stable when it substitutes the Ca(2+) ions in C-S-H, and so is its daughter nucleus (90)Y after β-decay. Interestingly, (90)Zr, daughter of (90)Y and final product in the decay sequence, is found to be unstable compared to the bulk phase of the element at zero K but stable when compared to the solvated ion in water. Therefore, cement appears as a suitable waste form for (90)Sr storage.
Cs+ ions intercalated in a South African vermiculite were so firmly bound that they were hardly dissociated on treating with an aqueous solution of 1 M KNO3 or NH4NO3. When a vermiculite having adsorbed the saturated amount of Cs+ ions (0.61 mol g−1) was stirred in an aqueous solution containing 0.4 M of Mg(NO3)2 and 20 mM of tetra kis(4-fluorophenyl)borate sodium salt (denoted as Na+L−), the intercalated Cs+ ions were fully replaced with Mg2+ ions within 2 h. The results were rationalized in terms of the ion-exchange reaction between Cs+ and Mg2+ ions: (Formula presented.), in which the reverse reaction (or re-binding) of Cs+ ions was prohibited by the formation of an insoluble salt, Cs+L−.
The California Tsunami Scenario models the impacts of a hypothetical, yet plausible, tsunami caused by an earthquake offshore from the Alaska Peninsula. In this chapter, we interpret plausible tsunami-related contamination, environmental impacts, potential for human exposures to contaminants and hazardous materials, and implications for remediation and recovery.
Inundation-related damages to major ports, boat yards, and many marinas could release complex debris, crude oil, various fuel types and other petroleum products, some liquid bulk cargo and dry bulk cargo, and diverse other pollutants into nearby coastal marine environments and onshore in the inundation zone. Tsunami-induced erosion of contaminated harbor bottom sediments could re-expose previously sequestered metal and organic pollutants (for example, organotin or DDT).
Inundation-related damage to many older buildings could produce debris containing lead paint, asbestos, pesticides, and other legacy contaminants. Intermingled household debris and externally derived debris and sediments would be left in flooded buildings. Post tsunami, mold would likely develop in inundated houses, buildings, and debris piles. Tsunamigenic fires in spilled oil, debris, cargo, vehicles, vegetation, and residential, commercial, or industrial buildings and their contents would produce potentially toxic gases and smoke, airborne ash, and residual ash/debris containing caustic alkali solids, metal toxicants, asbestos, and various organic toxicants. Inundation of and damage to wastewater treatment plants in many coastal cities could release raw sewage containing fecal solids, pathogens, and waste chemicals, as well as chemicals used to treat wastewaters.
Tsunami-related physical damages, debris, and contamination could have short- and longer-term impacts on the environment and the health of coastal marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Marine habitats in intertidal zones, marshes, sloughs, and lagoons could be damaged by erosion or sedimentation, and could receive an influx of debris, metal and organic contaminants, and sewage-related pathogens. Debris and re-exposed contaminated sediments would be a source of sea- or rain-water-leachable metal and organic contaminants that could pose chronic toxicity threats to ecosystems.
If human populations are successfully evacuated prior to the tsunami arrival, there would be no or limited numbers of drownings, other casualties, or related injuries, wounds, and infections. Immediately after the tsunami, human populations away from the inundation zone
could be transiently exposed to airborne gases, smoke, and ash from tsunamigenic fires. Cleanup and disposal, particularly of hazardous materials, would pose substantial logistical challenges and economic costs. Given the high value of the coastal residential and commercial properties in the inundation zone, it can be postulated that there would be substantial insurance claims for environmental restoration, mold mitigation, disposal of debris that contains hazardous materials, and costs of litigation related to environmental liability.
Post-tsunami cleanup, if done with appropriate mitigation (for example, dust control), personal protection, and disposal measures, would help reduce the potential for cleanup-worker and resident exposures to toxicants and pathogens in harbor waters, debris, soils, ponded waters, and buildings. A number of other steps can be taken by governments, businesses, and residents to help reduce the environmental impacts of tsunamis and to recover more quickly from these environmental impacts. For example, development of State and local policies that foster rapid assessment of potential contamination, as well as rapid decision making for disposal options should hazardous debris or sediment be identified, would help enhance recovery by speeding cleanup.
Environmental radioactivity, mainly in the Tohoku and Kanto areas, due to the long living radioisotopes of Cesium is laying obstacle on speedy recovery from the impacts of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. Though incineration of the contaminated wastes is encouraged, safe disposal of Cesium enriched ashes is the big challenge. In order to address this issue, safe incineration of contaminated wastes while restricting the release of volatile Cesium to the atmosphere was studied. Detail study on effective removal of Cesium from ash samples generated from wood bark, household garbage and municipal sewage sludge was performed. For wood ash and garbage ash, washing only with water at ambient conditions removed radioactivity due to 134Cs and 137Cs, retaining most of the components other than the alkali metals with the residue. However, removing Cesium from sludge ash needed acid treatment at high temperature. This difference in Cesium solubility is due to the presence of soil particle originated clay minerals in the sludge ash. Because only removing the contaminated vegetation is found to sharply decrease the environmental radioactivity, volume reduction of contaminated biomass by incineration makes great sense. In addition, long term need of leachate monitoring system in the landfill can be avoided by washing the ash with water. Once the Cesium in solids is extracted to the solution, it can be loaded to Cesium selective adsorbents like Prussian blue and safely stored in a small volume.
The potential for discarded electronic devices to be classified as toxicity characteristic (TC) hazardous waste under provisions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) using the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) was examined. The regulatory TCLP method and two modified TCLP methods (in which devices were disassembled and leached in or near entirety) were utilized. Lead was the only element found to leach at concentrations greater than its TC limit (5 mg/L). Thirteen different types of electronic devices were tested using either the standard TCLP or modified versions. Every device type leached lead above 5 mg/L in at least one test and most devices leached lead above the TC limit in a majority of cases. Smaller devices that contained larger amounts of plastic and smaller amounts of ferrous metal (e.g., cellular phones, remote controls) tended to leach lead above the TC limit at a greater frequency than devices with more ferrous metal (e.g., computer CPUs, printers).
The main objective of this paper is to check the fulfilment of the European Directive 2004/107/CE, which refers to the limit
values of arsenic, cadmium and nickel that will have to be carried out the first of January 2010. Three sampling points have
been chosen (Alcora, Vila-real and Castellón), forming a triangle that comprise most of the ceramic cluster of the province
of Castellón (Spain). This is a problematic area in relation to the fulfilment of the directive, due to its high industrial
development. Apart from this main objective, the following are raised: a) The analysis of the temporal evolution of the levels
of As, Cd, Ni and PM10 in the atmosphere during the year 2002; b) The identification of similar behaviour patterns and of
the possible common origins in the studied pollutants; c) To show the existence of differences in the behaviour and evolution
of As, Cd, Ni and PM10 in the atmospheric medium depending on the location of the sampling point; d) To check whether the
levels of As, Cd, Ni and PM10 are influenced by the environmental temperature. The concentration levels of arsenic, cadmium
and nickel in Alcora, Vila-real and Castellón have been determined during the year 2002, in order to check whether they are
below the limits established in the future directive on these elements. The following conclusions are reached from the results
obtained after the chemical analysis (using ICP–MS) of the samples collected in the three locations.
Soil, vegetation and other ecological compartments are expected to be highly contaminated by the deposited radionuclides after the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident triggered by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and the resulting tsunami on 11 March 2011. However, there is no field measurement data on the depth distributions of radiocaesium and (131)I concentrations in soil profile. In this study, the depth distribution of the deposited radionuclides in the cultivated soil profile was investigated in one of the most contaminated area after FDNPP accident. The result of this study demonstrated that greater than 86% of total radiocaesium and 79% of total (131)I were absorbed in the upper 2.0 cm in the soil profile. The relaxation mass depth (h(0)) derived from the depth distribution of radiocaesium and (131)I in the soil profile at the study site were 9.1 kg m(-2) and 10.4 kg m(-2), respectively. The h(0) of (137)Cs in the studied soil profile was greater than those for the cultivated soils nearby the Chernobyl NPP. The positive relationship was found between clay content of topsoil and the h(0) of (137)Cs. However, further analysis is required to clarify the effect of clay content on the initial penetration depth of deposited (137)Cs in soil profile.
The disaster debris from Hurricane Katrina is one of the largest in terms of volume and economic loss in American history. One of the major components of the demolition debris is wood waste of which a significant proportion is treated with preservatives, including preservatives containing arsenic. As a result of the large scale destruction of treated wood structures such as electrical poles, fences, decks, and homes a considerable amount of treated wood and consequently arsenic will be disposed as disaster debris. In this study an effort was made to estimate the quantity of arsenic disposed through demolition debris generated in the Louisiana and Mississippi area through Hurricane Katrina. Of the 72 million cubic meters of disaster debris generated, roughly 12 million cubic meters were in the form of construction and demolition wood resulting in an estimated 1740 metric tons of arsenic disposed. Management of disaster debris should consider the relatively large quantities of arsenic associated with pressure-treated wood.
This report was prepared to provide advice on the application of the Commission's 2007 Recommendations. The advice includes the preparedness for, and response to, all radiation emergency exposure situations defined as: 'situations that may occur during the operation of a planned situation, or from a malicious act, or from any other unexpected situation and require urgent action in order to avoid or reduce undesirable consequences'. An emergency exposure situation may evolve, in time, into an existing exposure situation. The Commission's advice for these types of situation is published in two complementary documents (that for emergency exposure situations in this report, that for existing exposure situations following emergency exposure situations in a forthcoming report entitled 'Application of the Commission's recommendations to the protection of individuals living in long-term contaminated territories after a nuclear accident or a radiation emergency'). The Commission's 2007 Recommendations re-state its principles of justification and optimisation, and the requirement to protect against severe deterministic injury, as applying to emergency exposure situations. For the purpose of protection, reference levels for emergency exposure situations should be set in the band of 20-100 mSv effective dose (acute or per year). The reference level represents the level of residual dose or risk above which it is generally judged to be inappropriate to plan to allow exposures to occur. The Commission considers that a dose rising towards 100 mSv will almost always justify protective measures. Protection against all exposures, above or below the reference level, should be optimised. More complete protection is offered by simultaneously considering all exposure pathways and all relevant protection options when deciding on the optimum course of action in the context of an overall protection strategy. Such an overall protection strategy must be justified, resulting in more good than harm. In order to optimise an overall strategy, it is necessary to identify the dominant exposure pathways, the time scales over which components of the dose will be received, and the potential effectiveness of individual protective options. If, in application of an overall protection strategy, protection measures do not achieve their planned residual dose objectives, or worse, result in exposures exceeding reference levels defined at the planning stage, a re-assessment of the situation is warranted. In planning and in the event of an emergency, decisions to terminate protective measures should have due regard for the appropriate reference level. The change from an emergency exposure situation to an existing exposure situation will be based on a decision by the authority responsible for the overall response. This transition may happen at any time during an emergency exposure situation, and may take place at different geographical locations at different times. The transfer should be undertaken in a co-ordinated and fully transparent manner, and should be understood by all parties involved.
Lead is the element most likely to cause discarded electronic devices to be characterized as hazardous waste. To examine the fate of lead from discarded electronics in landfills, five columns were filled with synthetic municipal solid waste (MSW). A mix of electronic devices was added to three columns (6% by weight), while two columns served as controls. A sixth column contained waste excavated from an existing MSW landfill. Leachate quality was monitored for 440 days. In columns with the synthetic waste, leachate pH indicated that the simulated landfill environment was characteristic of the acid phase of waste decomposition; lead leachability should be greater in the acid phase of landfill degradation as compared to the methanogenic phase. Lead concentrations ranged from 7 to 66 microg/L in the columns containing electronic waste and ranged from < 2 to 54 microg/L in the control columns. Although the mean lead concentrations in the columns containing electronic devices were greater than those in the controls, the difference was not found to be statistically significant when comparing the data sets over the entire monitoring period. Lead results from the excavated waste column suggest that lead concentrations in all columns will decrease as the pH increases toward more neutral methanogenic conditions.
Mulch made from recycled construction and demolition (C&D) wood has been reported to contain elevated levels of arsenic from inadvertent inclusion of chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood. Such mulch is also commonly colored with iron oxide, a compound known to bind arsenic. The objectives of this study were to quantify the releases of arsenic from mulch made from C&D wood, to evaluate the impacts of an iron-oxide colorant in potentially decreasing arsenic leaching rates, and to evaluate the relative significance of additional variables on leachate concentrations. Atotal of 3 sets of mulch samples (0%, 5%, or 100% CCA-treated wood) were prepared containing a sample either with or without colorant addition. Each sample was subjected to two tests: a field leaching test and the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP). Results showed that arsenic concentrations in the field leachate from the 0% treated wood mulches were consistently low (<0.003-0.013 mg/L) whereas leachates from 5 and 100% treated wood mulches were characterized by higher arsenic concentrations (0.059-2.23 mg/L for 5%; 0.711-22.7 mg/L for 100%). The mass of arsenic leached from the field samples during the 1-year monitoring period was between 10 and 15% of the initial mass of arsenic. The colorant reduced the leaching of arsenic by more than 20% for the field leachate and 50% for the SPLP leachate, on average. However, the study showed that the effect may not last for long periods. Besides colorant addition other factors were observed to affect the amount of arsenic leached from contaminated mulch. These include the proportion of CCA-treated wood in the mulch, time, and pH of rainfall.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of handheld XRF analyzers on wood that has been treated with a preservative containing arsenic. Experiments were designed to evaluate precision, detection limit, effective depth of analysis, and accuracy of the XRF arsenic readings. Results showed that the precision of the XRF improved with increased sample concentration and longer analysis times. Reported detection limits decreased with longer analysis times to values of less than 1mg/kg or 18 mg/kg, depending on the model used. The effective depth of analysis was within the top 1.2 cm and 2.0 cm of sample for wood containing natural gradients of chemical preservative and concentration extremes, respectively. XRF results were found to be 1.5-2.3 times higher than measurements from traditional laboratory analysis. Equations can be developed to convert XRF values to results which are consistent with traditional laboratory testing.
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