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Transmission of the Nipah virus. 1. Fruit bats acts as natural reservoir of Nipah viruses. Fruit bats with NiV feeds on date palm sap. Virus can survive in solutions that are rich in sugar, viz., fruit pulp. 2. Virus transmitted to human through the consumption of date palm sap. 3. Fruit bats of Pteropus spp. which are NiV reservoirs visited such fruit trees and got opportunity to naturally spill the drop containing virus in the farm to contaminate the farm soil and fruits. 4. Contaminated fruits are consumed by pigs and other animals. Pigs act as intermediate as well as amplifying host. Combination of close surroundings of fruiting trees, fruits-like date palm, fruit bats, pigs and human altogether form the basis of emergence and spread of new deadly zoonotic virus infection like Nipah. 5. Pork meat infected with NiV are exported to other parts. 6. Consumption of infected pork can act as a source of infection to human. 7. Close contact with NiV affected human can lead to spread of NiV to other persons.
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Nipah (Nee-pa) viral disease is a zoonotic infection caused by Nipah virus (NiV), a paramyxovirus belonging to the genus Henipavirus of the family Paramyxoviridae. It is a biosafety level-4 pathogen, which is transmitted by specific types of fruit bats, mainly Pteropus spp. which are natural reservoir host. The disease was reported for the first ti...
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Background
Nipah virus (NiV) is an emerging zoonotic paramyxovirus that causes severe encephalitis and respiratory disease with a high mortality rate in humans. During large outbreaks of the viral disease, serological testing of serum samples could be a useful diagnostic tool, which could provide information on not only the diagnosis of NiV disease...
Citations
... The cases reported from Jaipur, Rajasthan, were contained through targeted vector control and case detection measures. This technique proved to be highly effective [49]. Ten different ZIKV strains were sequenced in whole or in part from samples collected at different stages of the epidemic in Rajasthan. ...
Congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) is a major concern in India and highlights the multifaceted challenges posed by the Zika virus (ZIKV). The alarming increase in CZS cases in India, a condition that has serious effects on both public health and newborns, has raised concerns. This review highlights the importance of raising concern and awareness and taking preventive measures by studying the epidemiology, clinical symptoms, and potential long-term consequences of CZS. The review also contributes to worldwide research and information sharing to improve the understanding and prevention of CZS. As India deals with the changing nature of CZS, this thorough review is an important tool for policymakers, health workers, and researchers to understand what is happening now, plan for what to do in the future, and work together as a team, using medical knowledge, community involvement, and study projects to protect newborns’ health and reduce the public health impact of these syndromes.
... Nipah virus outbreak in India (2001India ( , 2007India ( , and 2018 The 2018 outbreak of the Nipah virus in Kerala, India, underscores the crucial necessity for a comprehensive global surveillance system targeting henipaviruses found in bats-the primary reservoir hosts for Nipah virus and other related pathogens (Arunkumar et al., 2019;Singh et al., 2019). The Nipah virus, belonging to the henipavirus genus within the paramyxovirus family, induces severe illness in humans, featuring stuttering chains of transmission, and is recognized as a potential global pandemic threat. ...
The increasing frequency of zoonotic spillover events and viral mutations in low and middle-income countries presents a critical global health challenge. Contributing factors encompass cultural practices like bushmeat consumption, wildlife trade for traditional medicine, habitat disruption, and the encroachment of impoverished settlements onto natural habitats. The existing "vaccine gap" in many developing countries exacerbates the situation by allowing unchecked viral replication and the emergence of novel mutant viruses. Despite global health policies addressing the root causes of zoonotic disease emergence, there is a significant absence of concrete prevention-oriented initiatives, posing a potential risk to vulnerable populations. This article is targeted at policymakers, public health professionals, researchers, and global health stakeholders, particularly those engaged in zoonotic disease prevention and control in low and middle-income countries. The article underscores the importance of assessing potential zoonotic diseases at the animal-human interface and comprehending historical factors contributing to spillover events. To bridge policy gaps, comprehensive strategies are proposed that include education, collaborations, specialized task forces, environmental sampling, and the establishment of integrated diagnostic laboratories. These strategies advocate simplicity and unity, breaking down barriers, and placing humanity at the forefront of addressing global health challenges. Such a strategic and mental shift is crucial for constructing a more resilient and equitable world in the face of emerging zoonotic threats.
... According to Epstein et al. 2006, the case mortality rate varies from 40 to 75%. As of right now, there are no particular medications or immunisations available to treat or prevent NiV infection (Singh et al. 2019). The NiV has a high death rate and difficulties in proper diagnosis and outbreak control, which is why the WHO rates the risk of the virus in Bangladesh at a moderate to high level (WHO 2023). ...
... The nation has had seasonal epidemics of NiV infection since the first outbreak was documented in 2001 (Singh et al. 2019;Satter et al. 2023;WHO 2024). There have Open Access been 242 recorded deaths from 341 NiV cases that have been found in Bangladesh thus far. ...
The zoonotic Nipah virus (NiV) is very lethal and may spread from animals to people. There is yet no known cure or therapy for NiV. The outbreaks are seasonal in Bangladesh, occurring between December and April, with cases reported almost annually. Since the virus was discovered in Bangladesh in 2001, 341 individuals had been affected, and as of February 2024, 242 fatalities have been documented. The case fatality rate (CFR) for NiV has been estimated to range from 40 to 75% in Bangladesh according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). As a result of the high CFR, difficulties in diagnosing the virus, and lack of specific treatments or vaccines for NiV infection, the WHO rates the overall risk at the national level as moderate. The virus has the potential to become a global public health concern due to its ability to spread from individual to person and beyond the region.
... Molecular diagnosis is the preferred method for confirming acute NiV infection because of its high sensitivity and specificity. Unfortunately, it should be noted that the viral RNA load gradually decreases in the body over the course of infection, and it has not yet been determined whether NiV spreads during the incubation period [13,14]. Serological tests have the advantages of being cost-effective and rapid and are suitable for large-scale screening and epidemiological studies. ...
Nipah virus (NiV) is a virulent zoonotic disease whose natural host is the fruit bat (Pteropus medius), which can coexist with and transmit the virus. Due to its high pathogenicity, wide host range, and pandemic potential, establishing a sensitive, specific, and rapid diagnostic method for NiV is key to preventing and controlling its spread and any outbreaks. Here, we established a luciferase immunosorbent assay (LISA) based on the NiV attachment glycoprotein (G) to detect NiV-specific immunoglobulin G by expressing a fusion protein of nanoluciferase (NanoLuc) and the target antigen. Sensitivity analysis was performed and compared to an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and specificity and cross-reactivity assessments were performed using NiV-positive horse serum and Ebola virus-, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus-, and West Nile virus-positive horse sera. The optimal structural domain for NiV detection was located within amino acids 176–602 of the NiV G protein head domain. Moreover, the LISA showed at least fourfold more sensitivity than the indirect ELISA, and the cross-reactivity results suggested that the LISA had good specificity and was capable of detecting NiV-specific immunoglobulin G in both mouse and horse serum. In conclusion, the establishment of a rapid, simple NiV LISA using the G protein head domain provides a resource for NiV monitoring.
... It is generally agreed upon that the G and N protein is a necessary antigen for the production of the NiV vaccine. Several vaccines are currently being developed that use NiV G protein or G protein plus F protein as antigens [44][45][46]. These vaccines are currently in the process of being tested on humans. ...
According to the 2018 WHO R&D Blueprint, Nipah virus (NiV) is a priority disease, and the development of a vaccine against NiV is strongly encouraged. According to criteria used to categorize zoonotic diseases, NiV is a stage III disease that can spread to people and cause unpredictable outbreaks. Since 2001, the NiV virus has caused annual outbreaks in Bangladesh, while in India it has caused occasional outbreaks. According to estimates, the mortality rate for infected individuals ranges from 70 to 91%. Using immunoinformatic approaches to anticipate the epitopes of the MHC-I, MHC-II, and B-cells, they were predicted using the NiV glycoprotein and nucleocapsid protein. The selected epitopes were used to develop a multi-epitope vaccine construct connected with linkers and adjuvants in order to improve immune responses to the vaccine construct. The 3D structure of the engineered vaccine was anticipated, optimized, and confirmed using a variety of computer simulation techniques so that its stability could be assessed. According to the immunological simulation tests, it was found that the vaccination elicits a targeted immune response against the NiV. Docking with TLR-3, 7, and 8 revealed that vaccine candidates had high binding affinities and low binding energies. Finally, molecular dynamic analysis confirms the stability of the new vaccine. Codon optimization and in silico cloning showed that the proposed vaccine was expressed to a high degree in Escherichia coli. The study will help in identifying a potential epitope for a vaccine candidate against NiV. The developed multi-epitope vaccine construct has a lot of potential, but they still need to be verified by in vitro & in vivo studies.
... It is characterised as a single-stranded RNA virus with a negativesense genome [1] that encodes six distinct structural proteins ( Fig. 1): nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), fusion protein (F), attachment glycoprotein (G), and the large protein or RNA polymerase protein (L). Infections of the central nervous system (CNS), cardiovascular system, kidneys, and lungs have all been linked to NiV [2], which is thus associated with a wide range of side effects; however, the most well-known ones include fever, headache, and sleepiness [3]. Initial infections have also been linked to breathing difficulties [3]. ...
... Infections of the central nervous system (CNS), cardiovascular system, kidneys, and lungs have all been linked to NiV [2], which is thus associated with a wide range of side effects; however, the most well-known ones include fever, headache, and sleepiness [3]. Initial infections have also been linked to breathing difficulties [3]. ...
... While the mechanism by which NiV enters the CNS is not presently known, ECs are a prominent target of this virus [3]. Ephrin-B2 and ephrin-B3 are viral entrance receptors that are expressed on a wide variety of cell types in various organs [5]. ...
The genome of the Nipah virus (NiV) encodes a variety of structural proteins linked to a diverse array of symptoms, including fevers, headaches, somnolence, and respiratory impairment. In instances of heightened severity, it can also invade the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in more pronounced problems. This work investigates the effects of NiV on the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the vital physiological layer responsible for safeguarding the CNS by regulating the passage of chemicals into the brain selectively. To achieve this, the researchers (MMJAO, AM and MNMD) searched a variety of databases for relevant articles on NiV and BBB disruption, looking for evidence of work on inflammation, immune response (cytokines and chemokines), tight junctions (TJs), and basement membranes related to NiV and BBB. Based on these works, it appears that the affinity of NiV for various receptors, including Ephrin-B2 and Ephrin-B3, has seen many NiV infections begin in the respiratory epithelium, resulting in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome. The virus then gains entry into the circulatory system, offering it the potential to invade brain endothelial cells (ECs). NiV also has the ability to infect the leukocytes and the olfactory pathway, offering it a "Trojan horse" strategy. When NiV causes encephalitis, the CNS generates a strong inflammatory response, which makes the blood vessels more permeable. Chemokines and cytokines all have a substantial influence on BBB disruption, and NiV also has the ability to affect TJs, leading to disturbances in the structural integrity of the BBB. The pathogen's versatility is also shown by its capacity to impact multiple organ systems, despite particular emphasis on the CNS. It is of the utmost importance to comprehend the mechanisms by which NiV impacts the integrity of the BBB, as such comprehension has the potential to inform treatment approaches for NiV and other developing viral diseases. Nevertheless, the complicated pathophysiology and molecular pathways implicated in this phenomenon have offered several difficult challenges to researchers to date, underscoring the need for sustained scientific investigation and collaboration in the ongoing battle against this powerful virus. Keywords: Nipah virus; blood brain barrier; tight junctions; basal membrane
... This classification is due to its tendency to cause outbreaks and the current absence of approved therapeutic or vaccine options for human use [1,2]. The Nipah virus, classified as an RNA virus within the Paramyxoviridae family, was initially identified as a zoonotic pathogen after the occurrence of outbreaks in Malaysia and Singapore between 1998 and 1999 [3]. These outbreaks resulted in the manifestation of severe respiratory illnesses in pigs and encephalitic symptoms in humans. ...
... The Nipah virus, classified as a paramyxovirus, falls under the Henipavirus genus within the Paramyxovirinae subfamily, which is part of the larger Paramyxoviridae family. It also belongs to the Mononegavirales order [3]. The Nipah virus (NiV) is classified as a negative-sense, singlestranded, enveloped RNA virus [3]. ...
... It also belongs to the Mononegavirales order [3]. The Nipah virus (NiV) is classified as a negative-sense, singlestranded, enveloped RNA virus [3]. The viral isolations obtained from various sources have provided evidence of the existence of two distinct strains of the Nipah virus, namely NiV-M (originating from Malaysia) and NiV-B (originating from Bangladesh) [4]. ...
The Nipah virus (NiV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that poses a major risk to global health, with a high mortality rate and the potential for wide outbreaks. NiV, which originated in fruit bats, has shown a concerning potential to infect humans and cause serious respiratory and neurological disorders. The virus has a pleomorphic structure and a broad host range, preventing efforts to understand and regulate its pathogenesis. This review discusses current advances in the prevention and management of NiV, including the efficacy of several antiviral therapies in vitro and in vivo. Treatments such as Ribavirin, Favipiravir, Acyclovir, Remdesivir, and Balapiravir have produced varying results, whilst monoclonal antibodies such as m102.4, h5B3.1, and nAH1.3 provide effective neutralization but require additional testing in humans. In addition, innovative vaccination techniques such as recombinant measles virus, subunit vaccines, vector vaccines, and the novel mRNA-1215 vaccine have shown success in preclinical and early clinical trials. To reduce the risk of human transmission, preventive measures include early outbreak detection through improved surveillance systems, exposure-based screening, and educational activities. This covers vital guidelines like avoiding raw date palm sap during outbreak seasons and using physical barriers to prevent bat-to-human transmission, which is vital for controlling this deadly virus.
... Neurological involvement occurs with haematogenous spread and direct invasion through olfactory nerves [39][40][41]. Following an incubation period of 3 -14 days, clinical symptoms begin in the form of atypical pneumonia and symptoms of encephalitis develop within 24-48 h [33,38,42,43]. Segmental myoclonus seems to be a pathognomonic sign and is an independent predictor of mortality [39,40,42]. ...
... Autopsy studies reveal vasculitic micro-angiopathy leading to infarctions. The case fatality rate is high ranging from 40-90% with significant neurological sequelae among survivors [43,45,46]. No licensed vaccines or antivirals are approved to date. ...
Purpose of review
Emerging and re-emerging central nervous system (CNS) infections are a major public health concern in the tropics. The reasons for this are myriad; climate change, rainfall, deforestation, increased vector density combined with poverty, poor sanitation and hygiene. This review focuses on pathogens, which have emerged and re-emerged, with the potential for significant morbidity and mortality.
Recent findings
In recent years, multiple acute encephalitis outbreaks have been caused Nipah, which carries a high case fatality. Arboviral infections, predominantly dengue, chikungunya and Zika are re-emerging increasingly especially in urban areas due to changing human habitats, vector behaviour and viral evolution. Scrub typhus, another vector borne disease caused by the bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi , is being established as a leading cause of CNS infections in the tropics.
Summary
A syndromic and epidemiological approach to CNS infections in the tropics is essential to plan appropriate diagnostic tests and management. Rapid diagnostic tests facilitate early diagnosis and thus help prompt initiation and focusing of therapy to prevent adverse outcomes. Vector control, cautious urbanization and deforestation, and reducing disturbance of ecosystems can help prevent spread of vector-borne diseases. Regional diagnostic and treatment approaches and specific vaccines are required to avert morbidity and mortality.
... Septicemia, gastrointestinal bleeding, and renal impairment develop in severe cases (1). Infection of the central nervous system is associated with acute, febrile encephalitis and relapsing encephalitis which may progress into coma in a day or two (30). Residual neurological consequences (persistent convulsion and personality changes) have been noted in approximately 20% of recovered patients. ...
Nipah virus, newly emerged zoonosis, is caused by the flying foxes. It has reported occasional outbreaks of encephalitis and respiratory syndrome and a significant mortality rate. Since 1998, when it was first identified in the Malaysia outbreak, this rare brain-damaging virus infection continues to emerge in different parts of the world. Although the risk of infection is imposed on almost a quarter of the world, due to widely distributed natural host, no approved specific treatment and vaccine available till now, but research continues. Therefore, a detailed discussion on this forthcoming infection need to be done. This review article aims on the current scenario of the infection caused by the Nipah virus as well as emphasize on the potential of Nipah virus infection to become global threat in future. Further, this article provides comprehensive review of the infection transmission, its sign and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment methods with emphasis on prevention and control measures.
... Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-1), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Nipah virus, and most recently, coronavirus disease (SARS-CoV-2) emerged as important human diseases and are believed to spill over from bats (Hughes et al., 2009;Luby et al., 2009;Anthony et al., 2017;Ng and Tan, 2017;Zhou et al., 2020). In 1998, highly fatal outbreaks of the Nipah viral disease, originated from bats of the Pteropodidae family, were reported in South and Southeast Asian countries with a fatality rate of 40% to 75% (Chua et al., 2002;Singh et al., 2019). Research teams from Sierra Leone, Kenya discovered Bombali virus (Family Filoviridae; Genus Ebolavirus) among insectivorous bats (Goldstein et al., 2018;Forbes et al., 2019). ...
ABSTRACT: This study assessed knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Metehara town community towards bat-borne diseases, where a novel coronavirus has recently been reported among cave bats in the area. A cross- sectional study was carried out between April 2021 and June 2021 among randomly selected individuals in the community. Data were collected using structured questionnaires. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to assess associations between socio-demographic characteristics and overall knowledge of respondents about bat-borne diseases. Out of 392 study participants, the majority (88.5%, n = 347) have heard that bats could transmit or serve as a source of disease to humans. Almost half of them (45.4%, n = 179) heard this information from the Metehara’s community. About 40 (11.5%) of the participants perceived that bats could transmit rabies. Close to 26.3% (n=103) of the participants were found to have a high level of overall knowledge, 70.7% (n = 277) favorable overall attitudes, and 98.7% (n = 387) good overall practices towards bat-borne diseases. The overall knowledge about bat-borne diseases was strongly associated with observing wild animals in or around residents’ houses. The majority of the participants had high overall attitudes and practices about bat-borne diseases, but their overall knowledge level was low. Hence, there is a need to create community awareness regarding the risk of bat-borne diseases along with bat conservation.
